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* [[Orang Rusia di Tiongkok]]
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Rusia Tiongkok
| native_name = <small>俄罗斯族</small><br /><small>Pусские</small>
| image = [[File:Beijing-NiuJie-Oroqen-Russian-Derung-Zu-3655.jpg|300px]]
| image_caption = Etnik Rusia, di tengah-tengah antara etnik [[Orang Oroqen|Oroqen]] (kiri) dan [[Orang Derung|Derung]] (kanan), sebuah poster di [[Niujie]], [[Beijing]]
| population = Secara resmi, hanya lebih dari 16.000<ref>{{cite web |author1=Li Yijuan |author2=Fan Yiying |title=Blood Brothers: The Scarred History of China's Ethnic Russians |url=https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1010180/blood-brothers-the-scarred-history-of-chinas-ethnic-russians |website=Sixth Tone |access-date=27 September 2022 |date=2 June 2022}}</ref>
| popplace = [[Xinjiang]], [[Mongolia Dalam]], [[Heilongjiang]] dan area lainnya
| langs = [[Bahasa Rusia|Rusia]], [[Bahasa Mandarin|Tionghoa]]
| rels = [[Gereja Ortodoks Timur|Ortodoks Timur]]
| related = [[Orang Rusia|Rusia]], [[Orang Albazin|Albazin]]
}}
 
'''Etnik Rusia''' ({{lang-ru|Pусские в Китае}}; {{zh|s=俄罗斯族|t=俄羅斯族|p=Éluósīzú|first=s}}) atau '''Rusia Tiongkok''', adalah salah satu dari 56 [[Daftar kelompok etnik di Tiongkok|kelompok etnik]] yang resmi diakui di [[Tiongkok]].<ref>Li 2003, p. 100</ref> [[Enhe|Township Etnik Rusia Enhe]] adalah satu-satunya [[Township, town, dan sum etnik|township etnik]] di Tiongkok yang ditunjuk untuk minoritas [[Orang Rusia|Rusia]] Tiongkok. Etnik Rusia sudah ada di Tiongkok selama berabad-abad dan umumnya adalah keturunan orang Rusia yang bermukim di Tiongkok pada abad ke-17. Etnik Rusia di Tiongkok adalah warga negara Tiongkok. Banyak dari mereka adalah keturunan orang [[Cossack]]. Saat ini ada lebih dari 16.000 jiwa etnik Rusia di Tiongkok yang menjalani sepanjang hidupnya sebagai warga negara Tiongkok. Pada sensus tahun 1957, ada 9.000 jiwa etnik Rusia. Sensus tahun 1978 mencatat hanya 600 etnik Rusia, tetapi angka itu naik hingga 2.935 pada sensus tahun 1982 dan 13.504 pada sensus tahun 1990.
 
==Sejarah==
 
===Orang Rusia di Harbin===
{{Further|Rusia Harbin}}
Generasi pertama orang Rusia membangun Harbin dari awal. Pada tahun 1913, Harbin menjadi koloni Rusia yang mapan untuk pekerjaan konstruksi dan pemeliharaan [[Kereta Api Tiongkok Timur]]. Sebuah catatan menunjukan total 68.549 orang, sebagian besar keturunan [[Rusia]] dan [[Orang Tionghoa|Tionghoa]]. Ada total 53 kebangsaan yang berbeda.<ref>Bakich, Olga Mikhailovna, "Emigre Identity: The Case of Harbin," ''The South Atlantic Quarterly'', Vol.99, No.1 (2000): 51–73.</ref> Kebanyakan populasi Harbin adalah keturunan Rusia dan/atau Eropa. Sebagian besar etnik Rusia dan minoritas Jerman, Ukraina, Yahudi, dan Polandia.
 
Pada dekade dari 1913 hingga 1923, Rusia terlibat dalam [[Perang Dunia I]], [[Revolusi Rusia]], dan [[Perang Saudara Rusia]].
Pada 1920an Harbin dibanjiri dengan 100.000 hingga 200.000 [[Emigran Kaum Putih]] yang melarikan diri dari Rusia. Harbin memiliki populasi Rusia terbesar di luar negara Rusia.
 
==== Kontrol Tiongkok dan pendudukan Jepang ====
 
Dengan berakhirnya pengaruh Rusia di Harbin, Harbin jatuh ke tangan Tiongkok dan Jepang selama beberapa dekade berikutnya.
 
Pada 1920, Republik Tiongkok mengumumkan mereka tidak akan lagi mengakui konsulat Rusia di Tiongkok. Pada 23 September, Tiongkok memutuskan hubungan dengan perwakilan dari [[Kekaisaran Rusia]] dan mengambil alih [[hak ekstrateritorial]] Rusia. Pemerintah Tiongkok mengambil kendali atas institusi di Harbin seperti pengadilan, polisi, penjara, kantor pos, dan beberapa institusi penelitian dan pendidikan.
 
Dari 1932 hingga 1945, orang Rusia di Harbin mengalami masa-masa sulit di bawah rezim [[Manchukuo]] dan [[pendudukan Manchuria oleh Jepang]]. Beberapa orang Rusia di Harbin awalnya menerima pendudukan, berharap Jepang membantu mereka berjuang melawan Uni Soviet dan melindungi mereka dari Tiongkok, yang berusaha mati-matian mengembalikan kedaulatannya atas Harbin.
 
===Orang Rusia di Xinjiang===
 
====Migrasi orang Rusia====
Selama abad ke-17, [[Kekaisaran Rusia]] melancarkan beberapa aksi militer melawan [[Dinasti Qing|Kekaisaran Qing]]. Pada 1644, tentara Rusia dikalahkan oleh tentara Qing, dan beberapa tawanan bersatu dengan [[Delapan Panji]]. Selama [[Konflik perbatasan Tiongkok-Rusia|Pertempuran Yagsi]], hampir 100 orang Rusia menyerahkan diri pada pemerintahan Qing, dan [[Kaisar Kangxi]] mengizinkan mereka untuk bergabung dengan Panji Kuning Perbatasan. Keturunan mereka masih ada hingga saat ini dan dikenal sebagai [[orang Albazin]]. Dari 1860 hingga 1884, banyak orang Rusia datang ke [[Hulun Buir]] untuk mencari emas, dan pada 1900, pasukan Rusia memasuki Tiongkok, dan menghancurkan beberapa penjagaan. Pada 1907 sudah ada 1.000 rumah tangga pemukim Rusia di [[Kota Ergun|Panji Kanan Ergun]].<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', pp.7 – 8.</ref>
 
Imigran Rusia paling awal yang datang ke [[Xinjiang]] adalah {{ill|Kerjak|ru|Кержаки}} (кержаки dalam Rusia, [[Pemercaya Lama]]), yang ditindas di bawah rezim [[Pyotr Agung]] karena menolak pindah ke agama [[Gereja Ortodoks Rusia]]. Mereka mengirim empat utusan untuk bernegosiasi dengan kepala suku Kazakh, Kala Usman dan diizinkan untuk bermukim di [[County Burqin|Burqin]]. Setelah beberapa tahun, mereka juga memulai beberapa permukiman di [[Kanas]], [[Chuguchak]], dan [[Prefektur Otonom Kazakh Ili|Ili]]. Pada 1861, 160 orang Kerjak masuk ke area [[Lop Nur]] untuk bermukim.
 
Hampir semua Kerjak adalah pemeluk Kristen yang taat; mereka jarang berkomunikasi dengan kelompok lain. Berdasarkan sensus tahun 1943, ada 1.200 orang Kerjak di Bulqin dan [[County Habahe|Kaba]]. Banyak yang pindah ke Australia setelah berdirinya [[Tiongkok|Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]].<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', pp.9 – 10.</ref>
 
Pada 1851, [[Perjanjian Kulja]] dibentuk dan banyak pedagang Rusia berbondong-bondong ke [[Xinjiang]]. Pedagang Rusia membunuh sekitar 200 pekerja tambang di [[Chuguchak]], dan membuat marah masyarakat setempat, kemudian menghancurkan jaringan dagang Rusia di bawah pimpinan dua [[orang Hui]], Xu Tianrao dan An Yuxian. Akibatnya, orang Rusia memaksa pemerintah [[Qing]] untuk membayar [[pampasan perang]] dengan mahal. Pada 1871, Kekaisaran Rusia menaklukan area [[Prefektur Otonom Kazakh Ili|Ili]] dan banyak pedagang Rusia pindah ke sini.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.11.</ref>
 
Terjadi keributan anti-Rusia ketika petugas bea cukai Rusia, tiga Cossack, dan seorang kurir Rusia mengundang [[Prostitusi di Tiongkok#Xinjiang|pelacur Muslim Turki (Xinjiang)]] ke pesta pada Januari 1902 di [[Kashgar]]. <!--This caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretext of protecting Muslim women because [[anti-Russian sentiment]] had built up. Even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims clashed violently with the Russians before they were dispersed. The Chinese sought to end the tensions to avoid giving the Russians a pretext to invade.<ref name="NightingaleSkrine2013">{{cite book|author1=Pamela Nightingale|author2=C.P. Skrine|title=Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTn-AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|date=5 November 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-57609-6|pages=124–}}</ref><ref name="NightingaleSkrine2013 2">{{cite book|author1=Pamela Nightingale|author2=C.P. Skrine|title=Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bbr5AQAAQBAJ&q=Russian+couriers+three+Cossacks+Russian+customs+native+prostitutes+Kashgar&pg=PT126|date=5 November 2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-57616-4|pages=124–}}</ref><ref name="SkrineNightingale1973">{{cite book|author1=Sir Clarmont Percival Skrine|author2=Pamela Nightingale|title=Macartney at Kashgar: new light on British, Chinese and Russian activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DgIAQAAIAAJ&q=Russian+couriers+three+Cossacks+Russian+customs+native+prostitutes+Kashgar|year=1973|publisher=Methuen|page=124|isbn=9780416653908}}</ref>
 
After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the [[Tajiks of Xinjiang|Sarikolis]] did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pamela Nightingale|author2=C.P. Skrine|title=Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTn-AQAAQBAJ&q=100+petty+Sarikol+protested+against+Russians+molest&pg=PA125|date=5 November 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-57609-6|pages=125–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Sir Clarmont Percival Skrine|author2=Pamela Nightingale|title=Macartney at Kashgar: new light on British, Chinese and Russian activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DgIAQAAIAAJ&q=On+8+February+a+deputation+from+Sarikol+arrived+at+Yarkand+and+presented+to+the+Amban+three+petitions+which+bore+the+seals+of+six+headmen+and+the+thumb-marks+of+about+100+petty+Sarikol+officials.+They+protested+against+the+arrival+of+the+Russians+and+asked+to+be+given+land+near+Yarkand+as+they+were+certain+that+the+Russians+would+molest+them.|year=1973|publisher=Methuen|page=125|isbn=9780416653908}}</ref>
 
When the [[White Army]] was defeated in the war against the [[Bolsheviks]], many [[Cossacks]] and other refugees fled to Xinjiang under the lead of General [[:ru:Иванов, Михаил Михайлович (генерал Российской империи)|Ivanov]]. Some of them rioted in [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Ili]] and [[Chuguchak]] but were finally suppressed by the Chinese warlord [[Yang Zengxin]]. Part of them later joined the [[Hohhot|Guihua]] soldiers recruited by the Xinjiang government.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.14.</ref>
 
From 1931 to 1938, the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government forced a lot of Chinese and their Russian relatives to move to China. More than 20,000 Russians entered China through the Crossings of Xinjiang and after 1941, many refugees fled to Xinjiang.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.16.</ref>
 
====Xinjiang Russians under the reign of Yang Zengxin, Jin Shuren and Sheng Shicai====
Under the reign of Yang Zengxin, the Russians in Xinjiang were mainly divided into 3 parts: some of the refugees had joined the Chinese nationality, were called "Guihua ren" ({{zh|t=歸化人}}, lit. "Naturalized people") and had to fill out applications and write volunteer certificates. Yang ordered officials from various regions to distribute land for them, and gave them farm animals and seeds. Some had joined the USSR nationality. Others refused to join either nationality.<ref name="auto">''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.18.</ref>
 
In 1928, when [[Jin Shuren]] came to power, he strengthened supervision and taxation of the Russians. Freedom of movement and trade were curtailed. According to the records from ''Xinjiang Gazette'', from 1930 to 1931 there were 207 Russians who went through the Guihua procedure in [[Ürümqi]] and 288 in Chuguchak.
 
In 1933, Jin abdicated. In 1935, the 2nd People's Congress was held and the Guihua people were officially recognized as a minority group of Xinjiang.<ref name="auto"/>
 
Besides damage done by previous European explorers, [[White movement]] bandits escaping from the [[Russian Civil War]] were responsible for vandalizing much of the Buddhist art at the [[Mogao Grottoes]]. They had caused trouble in [[Xinjiang]], but were defeated when they tried to attack Qitai. The Governor of Xinjiang, [[Yang Zengxin]], arranged for them to be transported to Dunhuang at the Mogao Grottoes, after talks with Governor Lu Hongtao of Gansu. The bandits wrote profanities on Buddhist statues, destroyed or damaged paintings, gouging out eyes and amputating the limbs of the statues, in addition to committing arson. This damage can still be seen to this day.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtshc7KLLJwC&q=yang+zengxin+kazakh+mongol&pg=PT163|title=风雨敦煌话沧桑: 历经劫难的莫高窟 Feng yu Dunhuang hua cang sang: li jing jie nan de Mogao ku|author=Xiuqing Yang 杨秀清, 甘肃省新闻办公室|year=2006|publisher=五洲传播出版社 中信出版社|page=158|isbn=7-5085-0916-1|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref>
 
In 1931, the [[Kumul Rebellion]] broke out in Xinjiang and the Province Army was defeated by [[Ma Zhongying]]'s troops. So Jin Shuren ordered [[Zhang Peiyuan]] to form the Guihua army. The conscripted Russians were organized as the 1st Guihua Cavalry under the regimental commander Mogutnov. Later the cavalry were expanded into two groups, with Antonov and Bapingut as the commanders. Zhang Peiyuan commanded the Guihua Army and the Province Army finally defeated Ma's army, reoccupied Zhenxi and raised the siege of [[Kumul (city)|Hami]]. In 1932, the peasants of [[Turpan]] rebelled under the lead of Makhsut, but were beaten down by Guihua Army.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', pp.22 – 23.</ref> Near the Chinese New Year Eve of 1933, the capital Ürümqi was besieged by Ma Shimin's units during the [[Battle of Urumqi (1933)]], [[Jin Shuren]] formed the 2nd Guihua Cavalry and repulsed them.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.24.</ref>
 
The Guihua soldiers were unhappy with Jin's arrears of military expenditures. Several Jin dissenters persuaded [[Pappengut]] and Antonov to launch a coup d'état, and they occupied the city defense command on the afternoon of April 12. Later Jin Shuren fled to the outskirts. At the same night, they established the Interim Sustain Committee and sent liaison officers to contact [[Sheng Shicai]]. Later that night Jin's troops fought back, but were finally defeated and Jin had to return to give up his office, more than 70 Russians died in that battle.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', pp.25 – 26.</ref>
 
When Ma Zhongying heard that the coup had taken place in Xinjiang, he promptly led the army to the west and sent his general Ma Heying to Altay. In May 1933, the Russian and Kazakh peasants of Bulqin armed themselves to fight against Ma's army, but were forced to give ground. Sheng ordered Guihua colonel Helovsky to reinforce them, and defeated Ma Heying after two days. In June 1933, Sheng Shicai and Ma Zhongying fought a decisive battle at [[Ziniquan]], Ma was defeated, and was forced to flee to [[Turpan]].<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.27.</ref>
 
Zhang Peiyuan then defected and joined forces with Ma Zhongying. Together, they almost defeated Sheng Shicai at the [[Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)]]. During the [[Soviet invasion of Xinjiang]], however, the Soviets intervened on the side of the Provincial government and the Guihua White Russians, and Ma Zhongying ended up in control of southern Xinjiang while the provincial government controlled the north.
 
[[Georg Vasel]], a German Nazi agent, was told "Must I tell him that I am a Russian? You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." by his driver, a White Russian when meeting [[Dungan people|Tungan]] ([[Hui people|Hui]]) [[Ma Zhongying]].<ref name="Vasel1937">{{cite book|author=Georg Vasel|title=My Russian jailers in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAEbAAAAIAAJ&q=tungans+hate+russians|year=1937|publisher=Hurst & Blackett|page=143}}</ref>
 
In the 1930s, during the [[Kumul Rebellion]], the traveler Ahmad Kamal was asked by "Turki" (Uighur) men if the veils donned by Turki women in Xinjiang were also worn by women in America (Amerikaluk).<ref name="Kamal2000">{{cite book|author=Ahmad Kamal|title=Land Without Laughter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&q=veil&pg=PA80|date=1 August 2000|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-01005-9|pages=80–}}</ref> The label of "whores" (Jilops) was used for Russian (Russ) and American (Amerikaluk) women by Turki men when what these women wore in public while bathing and the fact that no veil was worn by them was described by Ahmad Kamal to the Turki men.<ref name="Kamal2000 2">{{cite book|author=Ahmad Kamal|title=Land Without Laughter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&q=veil&pg=PA81|date=1 August 2000|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-01005-9|pages=81–}}</ref> ''Chinese swines and Russ infidels'' was a saying by Turki Muslims (Uyghurs) in Xinjiang.<ref name="Kamal2000 3">{{cite book|author=Ahmad Kamal|title=Land Without Laughter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA204|date=1 August 2000|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-01005-9|pages=204–}}</ref> Anti Russian hatred was spouted by Tungans (Hui Muslims) to the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in Xinjiang.<ref name="Kamal2000 4">{{cite book|author=Ahmad Kamal|title=Land Without Laughter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA82|date=1 August 2000|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-01005-9|pages=82–}}</ref> Ahmad Kamal saw Russians in the bazar at Aksu.<ref name="Kamal2000 5">{{cite book|author=Ahmad Kamal|title=Land Without Laughter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA221|date=1 August 2000|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-01005-9|pages=221–}}</ref> he saw Russian soldiers and Russian girls in the bazar at Urumchi.<ref name="Kamal2000 6">{{cite book|author=Ahmad Kamal|title=Land Without Laughter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA298|date=1 August 2000|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-01005-9|pages=298–}}</ref>
 
In the summer of 1934, when the war ended pro tempore, Sheng retracted the Guihua Headquarters, and selected about 500 Russians to form the 6th Cavalry to quarter at Ürümqi. In 1937, the Cavalry and the [[Red Army]] finally defeated Ma Hushan's troops during the [[Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)]]. And later it was disbanded, all the Guihua soldiers became ordinary people.<ref>''Eluosi zu jian shi'', p.30.</ref> The White Russians again sided with the Soviets during the [[Ili Rebellion]] in 1944.
 
During the Ili Rebellion, American telegrams reported that the Soviet secret police threatened to assassinate Muslim leaders from Ining and put pressure on them to flee to "inner China" via Tihwa (Ürümqi), White Russians grew fearful of Uyghur Muslim mobs as they chanted, "We freed ourselves from the yellow men, now we must destroy the white.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Perkins |editor-first=E. Ralph |year=1947 |chapter=Unsuccessful attempts to resolve political problems in Sinkiang; extent of Soviet aid and encouragement to rebel groups in Sinkiang; border incident at Peitashan |series=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947 |volume=VII |title=The Far East: China |page=549 |chapter-url=http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1947v07/reference/frus.frus1947v07.i0008.pdf |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |id=Documents 450–495 |location=Washington, DC }}</ref>
 
====After World War II====
In the last days of World War II, the [[Soviet–Japanese War (1945)|USSR entered the war against Japan]] and invaded western China. In doing so, Soviet forces encountered, to their surprise, Russian [[Old Believer]] villages. Many of the Old Believer men were taken back to Russia and imprisoned{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2020}}. Those who stayed found their way of life drastically changed and they often sought ways to leave China. The [[Red Cross]] and [[World Council of Churches]] learned of the Old Believers' plight and came to their aid, helping them gather in [[Hong Kong]] and prepare for resettlement. Those from [[Manchuria]] and some from [[Sinkiang]] went to [[Brazil]]. Others from Sinkiang went to [[Argentina]] and a few went to [[Australia]]. The receiving countries offered them refugee assistance, including land, equipment, building materials and food.
 
One group aboard a ship stopped for a few days in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], which since 1905 had been the center of a large community of [[Spiritual Christians]] from Russia. The ''Pryguny'' who recently immigrated via Iran rushed to the port and offered to host the Old Believers at their homes and prayer halls. In the process, addresses were exchanged. Later, once settled in South America, the elders used these addresses to contact potential sponsors, and eventually came to Los Angeles, with recommendations to go north to [[Oregon]]. ''Pryguny'' in Oregon agreed to advise them in settlement. Later on, the Sinkiang Old Believers in South America also joined the growing Old Believer community in Oregon. Therefore, a number of Russian Old Believers now live in [[Willamette Valley]], Oregon.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/a/lclark.edu/rsco/immigrant-communities/old-believers|title=OLD BELIEVERS – Russian-Speaking Communities in Oregon|website=sites.google.com|access-date=13 June 2017}}</ref><ref>[Teacher Guide for Old Believers]</ref>
 
Some Russians found employment and remained in China: as late as 1969, [[Francis James|an Australian journalist]] in the region identified a "Kazakh [[cavalry]] regiment of the People's Republic of China — Chinese Cossacks — stationed in the foothills of the [[Tien Shan]]".<ref>{{cite news|title=The first Western look at the secret H-bomb centre in China|journal=[[The Toronto Star]]|date=August 9, 1969|page=10|author=[[Francis James]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|journal=[[The Sunday Times]]|date=June 15, 1969|author=[[Francis James]]}}</ref>
 
===Russians at the Argun===
The '''Tryokhrechye''' ({{lang-rus|Трёхречье|p=trʲɵxˈrʲet͡ʃjɪ}} ‘Three-River Country’, [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 三河, ''Sānhé'' id.) designates a region of former Russian settlement in the Northeast of [[Inner Mongolia]], in the present-day city-prefecture of [[Hulunbuir]], at the border with [[Russia]], of roughly 11,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> size. It takes its name from the three rivers [[Gan River (Inner Mongolia)|Gan]], Derbul and Khaul that descend from the heavily forested [[Khingan Mountains]] in the East and join the border river [[Argun River (Asia)|Argun]] in the West. In the North, there are dense [[Taiga]] forests, in the South – the open steppe around [[Hailar]]. While the region is naturally separated from [[Manchuria]] by the Khingan, it is quite open to Russian territory across the Argun as the river freezes in winter and presents many fords and islands even in summer.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=104 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
While soils on the left (Russian) bank of the Argun are poor, those in the Trekhrechye are fertile, enabling agriculture as known in Russia proper. Forests in the East provided wood and game, the steppe to the South offered ample pasture.<ref name="Franz Steiner">{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=107 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
The Argun river served as a [[Sino-Russian border]] since the 1689 [[treaty of Nerchinsk]] but was hardly policed in a meaningful way. While the Russians erected Cossack posts (''[[Ostrog (fortress)|ostrogi]]'') in the [[Transbaikal]] region, the [[Qing dynasty]] was for a long time not interested in development of their side of the border.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=106 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
After the [[Decembrist revolt]] of 1825, political prisoners were sent to the [[Nerchinsk]] area. Some of them are said to have escaped from [[Katorga]] ([[penal labor]]) across the river and to have married [[Siberian native groups|indigenous]] women. Since the 1870s, [[Cossacks]] began grazing their cattle on the Chinese side, first along the Khaul river which is closest to Russia, only a day's ride away from the Russian settlements. They erected simple shelters for haymaking in summer and autumn and for hunting in winter. Already before 1900, some of these cattle stations began to coalesce into the first villages, like ''Manerka'' (Russian: Манерка) at the lower Khaul.
 
These settlers were tolerated by Chinese officials, usually themselves from nomadic groups (e.g. [[Mongols]], [[Solons]]). [[Han Chinese]], who would have preferred farming like the Russians, were at first not allowed to settle here. Around 1900, there were only a few Chinese shopkeepers in the area, selling alcohol and tobacco. The latter became much more profitable after the introduction of customs controls in 1900 and especially with the end of the 50-[[verst]] free trade zone along the border.<ref name="Franz Steiner"/>
 
The Qing authorities unsuccessfully tried to encourage Han farmers to settle there but from 1905 they replaced indigenous officials with Han men, much to the chagrin of the Mongols. After the [[Chinese Revolution (1911)|revolutionary turmoil]] of 1911, China struggled to reassert control of the Hulunbuir area which was partially achieved in 1915, fully only in 1920.
 
====The Russian Civil War and its aftermath====
The [[Russian Civil War]] and its aftermath changed the make-up of the Trekhrechye Russian community. Four waves of immigrants might be distinguished: (1) Cossacks who had lived just on the Russian side on the Argun and now settled down on the Chinese side; (2) other refugees of the civil war from the remainder of Transbaikalia, many hoping to return soon; (3) the largest wave: refugees from [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|Soviet collectivization]], starting in 1929 (Russian: Тридцатники ''tridtsatniki'', "1930-ers"); (4) laid-off employees of the [[Chinese Eastern Railway|Eastern Chinese Railway]] which was run largely by Russians up until that time. As a result of this, ethnic Russians represented more than 80% of this region's population in the late 1930s and early 40s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=108 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
The Cossack settlers organized an administration of their own, consisting of village elders, with a chief elder in the village of Suchye (Russian: Сучье), where there was also a Chinese district chief. Chinese authorities attempted to assimilate the emigrants in the 1920s by introducing passports, raising taxes, prohibiting Orthodox feast days. When the archbishop of Harbin visited Dragotsenka in 1926, he was arrested.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=112 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Population estimates for the Tryokhrechye by ethnic groups{{efn|The numbers have been compiled by Sören Urbansky (Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun', 2014) and stem from different sources. For 1928: V. A. Kormazov: Èkonomičeskij očerk. Harbin 1928, pp. 50 f. For 1933: V. A. Anučin: Geografičeskie očerki Man'čžurii. Moskau 1948. Anučin claims to rely on research by Kormazov. For 1945: Julija Argudjaeva: Russkoe naselenie v Trechreč'e. In: Rossija i ATR (2004), vol. 4, p. 126. For 1955 and 1972: V. N. Žernakov: Trechreč'e. Oakland (Ca.) no year, p. 4. From the private archive of Olga Bakich, Toronto. For 1990: E'erguna you qi zhi [Chronicle of the Right Argun banner]. Haila'er 1993, pp. 106 and 127. These very high numbers published by Chinese authorities for 1990 are especially problematic and unrealistic, given the fact that members of minorities are entitled to privileges in education and family policies.}}
 
|-
! Year !! Total population !! Density per km<sup>2</sup> !! Russians !! Han Chinese !! others
|-
| 1928 || 2,330 || 0,2 || 2,130 || 200
|-
| 1933 || – || – || 5,519 || – || –
|-
| 1945 || ca. 13,100 || 0,9 || ca. 11,000 || ca. 1,100 || ca. 1,000
|-
| 1955 || – || – || ca. 3,000 || – || –
|-
| 1972 || – || – || 23 || – || –
|-
| 1990 || ca. 50,000 || 4,3 || "Ethnic Russians": 1,748;
"Mixed" (''polukrovtsy''): 3,468
|| – || –
|}
 
{{notelist}}
 
At its height, there were 21 Russian villages in the Three-River Country, with ''Dragotsenka'' (Russian: Драгоценка, modern ''Sanhexiang'' {{zh|t=三河鄕}}) as its political and socioeconomic center. Dragotsenka counted only 450 inhabitants in 1933 but grew to 3,000 in 1944. Only half of those inhabitants were Russians whereas there lived 1,000 Chinese and 500 Japanese. (Most of the other villages were almost exclusively inhabited by Russians.) There was also a 500-strong garrison nearby. It was the seat of the head cossack, responsible for the Russians in the area, as well as the seat of regional police and a Japanese military mission. There was a small power station, a refinery for vegetable oil, a steel-rolling mill, a dairy factory, auto repair shops, saddleries, leather and felt factories, a post and telegraph office, a bank, and branches of national trading houses. Most of the Chinese worked in small own businesses. The Russian community could find here its only high school in the area, the seat of the Russian Association and the local branch of the nation-wide ''Office for the Russian Emigrants' Affairs'' (BREM) which published the weekly newspaper ''The Cossack Life'' (Russian: Казачья Жизнь).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=110 f |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
To Soviet visitors of the late 1940s, the Tryokhrechye villages seemed like curious, almost museum-like images of life in prerevolutionary Siberia. The villages were grouped around long straight streets and consisted of [[blockhouses]] made of [[Siberian Larch|larch]] wood, facing south, with ocher-painted floors. A similar archaism prevailed in religion and customs. The [[Russian Orthodox Church]] continued to play a central role. In addition to St. Peter and Paul's Church in Dragotsenka, there were nine other village churches and one monastery. With regards to traditions, people would e.g. strew flour into their hallways nine days after [[Orthodox Easter|Easter]] and check the next morning whether their dead parents had returned. On [[Pentecost#Eastern churches|Whitmonday]], the Cossacks washed and consecrated their horses.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=111 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
During the [[Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)|Soviet intervention]] for the Chinese Eastern Railway, the Red Army led punitive expeditions into the Tryokhrechye in August and September 1929. It was reported that 150 emigrants were killed, and that there was a wave of refugees to [[Harbin]]. For some time before, [[White russian emigre|White]] units had made small-scale raids onto Soviet territory. The Russian diaspora proved to be well-connected: The Russians of [[Shanghai]] pleaded to US [[President Hoover]] in a telegram to put an end to "the bloody nightmare of the Red henchmen".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=112 f |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
====Japanese occupation and World War II====
In this climate of [[Anti-Sovietism|anti-Soviet]] fear, the Three-River Russians initially welcomed the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Japanese invasion]]. In December 1932, they greeted the new "era of order and justice" and promised their cooperation. Japan permitted a certain degree of cultural autonomy for minorities like the Russians, mainly to counter the numerically dominant Han Chinese in their new puppet state, [[Manchukuo]]. Russian language propaganda of Manchukuo painted local life in idyllic colors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Шестаков |first1=М. |title=Благодатное Трёхречье |journal=Вестник Казачьей Выставке в Харбине 1943 г. Сборник статей о казаках и казачестве |date=1943 |pages=194 f |location=Harbin |language=ru |quote=They live their traditional Russian-patriarchal life in satisfaction and prosperity, they work on the field, respect the interests, the law and order of the country that assists them in all their troubles, and keep in dear memory their suffering [[Mother Russia]], which the shape of their villages so strongly recalls, with the cathedral whose domes and towers, crowned by the holy cross, rise up proudly at the best spot of the village into the blue sky of the gracious Manchu Empire that they revere as their second home.}}</ref>
 
This initial optimism by weakened by strict Japanese surveillance. The main tool for this was the BREM with which they had to register. In 1944 the BREM district for the [[Greater Khingan prefecture|Khingan]] (incl. Tryokhrechye) was the second largest by members (21,202) after Harbin (39,421). The BREM organized local propaganda and indoctrination, especially for Russian youth, and the celebrations for March 1, Manchukuo's national holiday. From 1937 onwards, control of the border region was intensified, and from the 1940s, traveling to and settling in the region required a permit. This increased the isolation of the community.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |pages=114–115 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
Japanese general Kenji Doihara forced White Russian women into prostitution and drug addiction to spy and spread drugs to their male Chinese clients.<ref>White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian,p.298, Jamie Bisher, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0714656908}}, 2005</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bisher|first=Jamie |title=White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian|date=2006|edition=illustrated|publisher=Routledge |isbn=1135765952|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ&dq=doihara+opium+russian+women&pg=PA298 |page=298}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nash|first=Jay Robert|title=Spies: A Narrative Encyclopedia of Dirty Deeds and Double Dealing from Biblical Times to Today|date=1997|edition=illustrated|publisher=M. Evans, Incorporated|isbn=0871317907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JG0OAQAAMAAJ&q=doihara+opium+russian+women|series=G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series|page=179}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Crowdy|first=Terry |title=The Enemy Within: A History of Spies, Spymasters and Espionage|date=2011|edition=illustrated, reprint|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1780962245|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnmICwAAQBAJ&dq=doihara+opium+russian+women&pg=PT169|page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Seagrave|first1=Sterling |last2=Seagrave|first2=Peggy |title=Gold Warriors: America's Secret Recovery of Yamashita's Gold|date=2003|edition= reprint|publisher=Verso|isbn=1859845428|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n3c_gKdOXAcC&dq=doihara+opium+russian+women&pg=PA35|page=35}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://karavansara.live/2019/12/02/curse-of-the-golden-bat-ii-lawrence-of-manchuria/ |title=Curse of the Golden Bat II – Lawrence of Manchuria |last= Mana |first=Davide |date= 2 December 2019|website= Karavansara}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://historyofyesterday.com/how-imperial-japan-created-a-vast-drug-empire-to-destroy-china-823f31fc3979 |title= How Imperial Japan Created a Vast Drug Empire to Destroy China|last=Preskar |first=Peter |date=Mar 7, 2021 |website= Short History|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210328021823/https://historyofyesterday.com/how-imperial-japan-created-a-vast-drug-empire-to-destroy-china-823f31fc3979|archive-date= 2021-03-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://short-history.com/how-imperial-japan-created-a-vast-drug-empire-to-destroy-china-823f31fc3979 |title= How Imperial Japan Created a Vast Drug Empire to Destroy China|last=Preskar |first=Peter |date=Mar 7, 2021 |website= Short History }}</ref> He initially gave food and shelter to tens of thousands Russian [[White émigré]] women who had taken refuge in the Far East after the defeat of the [[White movement|White Russian]] anti-Bolshevik movement during the [[Russian Civil War]] and the withdrawal of the [[Siberian Intervention|Entente]] and [[Japan during the Siberian Intervention|Japanese]] armies from [[Siberia]]. Having lost their livelihoods, and with most of them widowed, Doihara forced the women into prostitution, using them to create a network of [[brothel]]s throughout China where they worked under inhuman conditions. The use of heroin and opium was promoted to them as a way to tolerate their miserable fate. Once addicted, the women were used to further spread the use of opium among the Chinese population by earning one free opium pipe for every six they were selling to Chinese customers.<ref>Encyclopedia of espionage, p.315, Ronald Sydney Seth, {{ISBN|9780385016094}}, Doubleday, 1974</ref>
 
Japanese scientists conducted human experiments on White Russian men, women and children by gassing, injecting and vivisecting them in [[Unit 731]] and [[Unit 100]]. There were multiple Russian victims of Unit 731 and testimonies and records show that a Russian girl and her mother were gassed and one Russian man was cut int two and preserved with formaldehyde.<ref>{{cite news |last=KRISTOF |first= NICHOLAS D. |date= March 17, 1995|title=Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |work= The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ryall |first= Julian |date= 15 Feb 2010|title=Human bones could reveal truth of Japan's 'Unit 731' experiments |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/7236099/Human-bones-could-reveal-truth-of-Japans-Unit-731-experiments.html |work= The Telegraph |location=Tokyo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://unit731.org/experiments/ |title=Experiments |date=2019 |website= UNIT 731 Japan's Biological Warfare Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phantomsandmonsters.com/2012/08/savages-of-rising-sun.html |title=Savages of the Rising Sun|date=August 1, 2012 |website= Phantoms and Monsters}}</ref>
 
Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit&nbsp;731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit&nbsp;731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: " one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven."<ref name="gold-testimony"/> The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments.<ref name="gold-testimony">{{cite book|title=Unit 731 Testimony|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|isbn=978-1462900824|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=157–158}}</ref>
 
Senior Sgt. Kazuo Mitomo described some of Unit 100's human experiments:
:"On some of the prisoners I experimented 5-6 times, testing the action of [[Convolvulus arvensis|Korean bindweed]], [[bactal]] and [[castor oil]] seeds. One of the prisoners of Russian nationality became so exhausted from the experiments that no more could be performed on him, and Matsui ordered me to kill that Russian by giving him an injection of [[potassium cyanide]]. After the injection, the man died at once. Bodies were buried in the unit's cattle cemetery."
 
Unit 100 staff poisoned and drugged Russians with heroin, castor oil, tobacco and other substances for weeks at a time. Some died during the experimentation. When survivors were determined to no longer be useful for experimentation and were complaining of illness, staff told them they would receive a shot of medicine, but instead executed them with potassium cyanide injections. Executions were also carried out by gunshots.<ref name="trialmaterials">{{cite book |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |date=1950 |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons}}</ref>{{rp|323}}
 
The small Russian community beyond the Argun drew a disproportionate interest of Japanese imperial researchers: ethnographers, anthropologists, agronomists. The number of their publication exceeds the Russian and Chinese ones by far, and much of what we know about the community comes from Japanese research.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=120 |language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref> They idolized the Cossacks and their way of dealing with the harsh climate, drawing potential conclusions for the settlement of Japanese in Manchuria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Minami manshū testudō Kabushiki gaisha Hokuman keizai chōsajo |title=Hokuman sanka rojin no jūtaku to seikatsu |date=1943 |location=Tokyo |page=2 |language=ja |quote="It cannot be overlooked that their success [i.e. of the Russian settlers] is due to that perseverance which is peculiar for the Slavs. [...] Although [their way-of-life] can hardly be copied due to different environmental conditions and unequal living habits, their long experience with northern, cold terrain is to be respected. As there is much to learn in agriculture as well as everyday life, we have to adopt their advantages so that we can adapt, if only incrementally, to the climate of the North. What present Japanese settlers are lacking the most, is therefore an introduction into the everyday life [in the North]." (transl. by Okuto Gunji from Japanese to German for Urbansky's 2014 article)}}</ref>
 
With the Soviet invasion in 1945, the secret service ([[NKVD]]) entered the area and arrested about a quarter of the male population, esp. the larger number of the ''tridtsatniki'', who were deported to the [[Gulag]]. The other residents received Soviet passports. In autumn 1949, the farms of the remaining Russians were [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|forcibly collectivized]]. Most of them were repatriated to the Soviet Union over the following years, with the last significant wave going to [[Kazakhstan]] in 1955–56; Chinese farmers took over the vacated areas. Most of the Russians who stayed, emigrated to [[Australia]] or [[Latin America]] after the Chinese government permitted them to do so in 1962. The very few remaining Russians relocated back to the left riverbank during the [[Cultural Revolution]]. Soviet citizens were not harassed but those of mixed ancestry (''polukrovtsy''‚ half-bloods‘) were accused of espionage, often tortured and killed. Speaking Russian was forbidden during this time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urbansky |first1=Sören |editor1-last=Aust |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Obertreis |editor2-first=Julia |title=Osteuropäische Geschichte und Globalgeschichte |date=2014 |publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart |page=109 f|language=de |chapter=Der Kosake als Lehrer oder Exot? Fragen an einen Mandschukuo-Dokumentarfilm über die bäuerliche russische Diaspora am Grenzfluss Argun'}}</ref>
 
===Shanghai Russians===
{{further|Shanghai Russians}}
 
==Current status==
The 1957 census counted 9,000 ethnic Russians in China, while the 1978 census counted just 600. That number rose again to 2,935 in the 1982 census and 13,504 in the 1990 census, mostly in northern [[Xinjiang]] and [[Inner Mongolia]]. Some of them live in [[Enhe]] and [[Shiwei, Inner Mongolia|Shiwei]], the only Russian ethnic townships in China. There continues to be disagreement over the number of ethnic Russians living in China.<ref>Olson 1998, p. 294</ref>
 
Statistics as of the 2002 Census.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/renkoupucha/2000pucha/html/t0106.htm|title=国家统计局：《2000年第五次人口普查数据》表1—6 省、自治区、直辖市分性别、民族的人口|access-date=13 June 2017}}</ref> Pink designates native region.
{| class="wikitable sortable" font=90%
|-
!align="center" valign="middle"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Area</span><br />
!align="center" valign="middle"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Total<br />Population</span><br />
!align="center" valign="middle"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Russians<br />in China<br />(Eluosi Zu)</span><br />
!align="center" valign="middle"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Proportion of<br />all Russians<br />in China (%)</span><br />
!align="center" valign="middle"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Russians as<br />proportion of<br />local minority population</span><br />
!align="center" valign="middle"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Russians as<br />proportion of<br />total local population (%）</span><br />
|-
|bgcolor="#CAE4FF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">Total</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#CAE4FF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">1,245,110,826</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#CAE4FF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">15,631</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#CAE4FF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">100</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#CAE4FF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0148</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#CAE4FF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00126</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">31 Province area</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">1,242,612,226</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">15,609</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">99.86</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0148</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00126</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Northwest China]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">89,258,221</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">9,128</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">58.40</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0523</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.01023</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[North China]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">145,896,933</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">5,406</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">34.59</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0620</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00371</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Northeast China]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">104,864,179</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">479</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">3.06</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0044</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00046</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[East China]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">358,849,244</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">271</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">1.73</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0108</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00008</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[South Central China]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">350,658,477</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">182</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">1.16</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0006</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00005</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Southwest China]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">193,085,172</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">143</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.91</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0004</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#E0E0E0"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00007</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Xinjiang]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">18,459,511</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">8,935</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">57.16</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0815</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.04840</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Inner Mongolia]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">23,323,347</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">5,020</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">32.12</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.1033</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.02152</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Heilongjiang]]</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">36,237,576</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">265</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">1.70</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0150</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFCCFF"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00073</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Beijing]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">13,569,194</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">216</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">1.38</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0369</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00159</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Liaoning]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">41,824,412</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">150</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.96</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0022</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00036</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Hebei]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">66,684,419</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">102</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.65</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0035</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00015</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Shanghai]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">16,407,734</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">76</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.49</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0732</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00046</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Shaanxi]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">35,365,072</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">69</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.44</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0391</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00020</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Shandong]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">89,971,789</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">68</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.44</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0108</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00008</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Jiangsu]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">73,043,577</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">67</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.43</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0258</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00009</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Jilin]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">26,802,191</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">64</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.41</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0026</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00024</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Tianjin]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">9,848,731</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">60</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.38</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0225</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00061</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Gansu]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">25,124,282</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">55</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.35</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0025</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00022</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Henan]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">91,236,854</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">54</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.35</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0047</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00006</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Guangdong]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">85,225,007</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">50</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.32</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0039</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00006</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Sichuan]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">82,348,296</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">48</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.31</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0012</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00006</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Qinghai]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">4,822,963</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">48</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.31</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0022</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00100</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Yunnan]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">42,360,089</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">32</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.20</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0002</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00008</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Guizhou]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">35,247,695</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">31</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.20</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0002</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00009</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Hubei]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">59,508,870</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">26</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.17</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0010</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00004</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Hunan]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">63,274,173</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">25</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.16</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0004</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00004</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Anhui]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">58,999,948</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">22</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.14</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0055</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00004</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Zhejiang]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">45,930,651</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">21</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.13</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0053</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00005</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Ningxia]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">5,486,393</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">21</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.13</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0011</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00038</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Tibet Autonomous Region]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">2,616,329</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">20</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.13</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0008</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00076</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Hainan]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">7,559,035</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">14</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.09</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0011</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00019</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Fujian]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">34,097,947</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">13</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.08</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0022</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00004</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Guangxi]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">43,854,538</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">13</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.08</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0001</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00003</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Chongqing]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">30,512,763</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">12</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.08</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0006</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00004</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Shanxi]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">32,471,242</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">8</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.05</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0078</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00002</span>
|-
|<span style="font-size:100%;">[[Jiangxi]]</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">40,397,598</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">4</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.03</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0032</span>
|align="right"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00001</span>
|-
|bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">In active duty</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">2,498,600</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">22</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.14</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.0197</span>
|align="right" bgcolor="#FFFF00"|<span style="font-size:100%;">0.00088</span>
|}-->
 
==Orang terkenal==
* [[Lin Hu (jenderal)|Lin Hu]], letnan jenderal, wakil komandan [[Angkatan Udara PLA]]
* [[Elizabetha Pavlovna Kishkina]] ({{zh|c=李莎}}; {{lang-ru|Елизабета Павловна Кишкина}}), istri dari [[Li Lisan]] the wife of [[Li Lisan]], keponakan [[Perdana Menteri]] [[Rusia]] pra-Bolshevik yang terakhir
* [[Chiang Fang-liang]] ({{zh|c=蔣方良}}; {{lang-ru|Фаина Ипатьевна Вахрева}}), [[Ibu Negara]] [[Republik Tiongkok]] tahun 1978–88
* [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lunev]] ({{zh|c=尼古拉·伊萬諾維奇·盧尼奧夫}}; {{lang-ru|Николай Иванович Лунёв}}), wakil [[Konferensi Konsultatif Politik Rakyat Tiongkok]] ke sepuluh
* [[Misha Ge]] ({{zh|c=戈米沙}}), peseluncur indah keturunan Rusia, Tionghoa, dan Korea, warga negara Tiongkok dari 2001 hingga 2010.
 
== Lihat pula ==
{{Portal|Tiongkok|Rusia}}
* [[Rusia Harbin]]
* [[Rusia Shanghai]]
* [[Rusia Hong Kong]]
* [[Kereta Api Timur Jauh Tiongkok]]
* [[Zona Kereta Api Timur Tiongkok]]
* [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]]
* [[Tatar Tiongkok]]
* [[Burhan Shahidi]]
*[[Gereja Ortodoks Tiongkok]]
* [[Hubungan Rusia dengan Tiongkok]]
 
{{disambig}}
== Rujukan ==
=== Kutipan ===
{{Reflist}}
 
=== Sumber ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |script-title = zh:俄罗斯族简史 |trans-title = Brief History of Russians in China) |year = 2008 |publisher = [[Publishing House of Minority Nationalities]] |location=Beijing |language = zh |isbn = 978-7-105-08688-7 |oclc = 298347724}}
* {{cite book |last=Li |first=Xing |title=China's ethnic minorities |publisher=Foreign Languages Press |location=Beijing |year=2003 |isbn=978-7-119-03184-2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Olson |given=James S. |author-link=James S. Olson |title=Russian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOM8qF34s4YC&pg=PA294 |encyclopedia=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China |page=294 |place=Westport, Conn |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-313-28853-4}}
{{refend}}
 
==Bacaan lebih lanjut==
*{{cite journal |first1=Linda|last1=Benson|first2=Ingvar|last2=Svanberg |title=The Russians in Xinjiang: From immigrants to national minority |doi=10.1080/02634938908400666 |journal=Central Asian Survey |volume=8|number=2|year=1989 |pages=97–129}}
*Kotenev, Anatol M. (1934). "[[doi:10.1017/S0002930000167028|The Status of the Russian Emigrants in China]]". ''American Journal of International Law''. '''28''' (3): 562–565.
*{{cite book |surname=Schwars |given=Henry G. |title=The Minorities of Northern China: A Survey |year=1984}}
*Smith, Nicol (1940). ''Burma Road: The Story of the World's Most Romantic Highway'' The Bobbs-Merrill Company, New York (34–35)
*Zissermann, Lenore Lamont (2016), ''Mitya's Harbin; Majesty and Menace'', Book Publishers Network, {{ISBN|978-1-940598-75-8}}
 
==Pranala luar==
* [http://www.orthodox.cn/news/040909xinjiang_en.htm Security service investigation followed Orthodox priest's deportation]
 
{{Imigrasi ke Republik Rakyat Tiongkok}}
{{Diaspora Rusia}}
{{CEG}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rusia Tiongkok}}
[[Category:Diaspora Rusia menurut negara|Tiongkok]]
[[Category:Tokoh Tiongkok keturunan Rusia| ]]
[[Category:Kelompok etnik yang resmi diakui oleh Tiongkok]]
[[Category:Diaspora Rusia di Tiongkok| ]]
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Rusia_Tiongkok"