Sejarah Bumi: Perbedaan antara revisi

{{Dablink|Untuk sejarah manusia modern, lihat [[Sejarah dunia]].}}

'''Sejarah Bumi''' berkaitan dengan perkembangan planet [[Bumi]] sejak terbentuk sampai sekarang.{{r|Stanley2005|TimeScale}} Hampir semua cabang [[ilmu alam]] telah berkontribusi pada pemahaman peristiwa-peristiwa utama di Bumi yang sudah lampau. [[Usia Bumi]] ditaksir sepertiganya [[Umur alam semesta|usia alam semesta]]. Sejumlah perubahan [[biologi]]s dan [[geologi]]s besar telah terjadi sepanjang rentang waktu tersebut.

 

 

Perubahan biologis dan geologis terus terjadi di planet ini sejak terbentuk. Organisme terus [[evolusi|berevolusi]], berubah menjadi bentuk baru atau [[peristiwa kepunahan|punah]] seiring perubahan Bumi. Proses [[tektonik lempeng]] memainkan peran penting dalam pembentukan lautan dan benua di Bumi, termasuk kehidupan di dalamnya. [[Biosfer]] memiliki dampak besar terhadap atmosfer dan kondisi abiotik lainnya di planet ini, seperti pembentukan [[lapisan ozon]], proliferasi oksigen, dan penciptaan [[tanah]].

 

== Skala waktu geologi ==

{{See also|Diferensiasi planet}}

[[Berkas:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|jmpl|360px|Ilustrasi konsepsi tentang sebuah [[cakram protoplanet]].]]

 

Pusat nebula, yang tidak banyak memiliki momentum sudut akhirnya cepat runtuh; tekanan dari runtuhan tersebut memanaskannya hingga memungkinkan terjadinya proses [[fusi nuklir]] antara [[hidrogen]] dan [[helium]]. Ketika kontraksi menjadi lebih besar, terbentuklah [[bintang T Tauri]] dan berkembang menjadi [[Matahari]]. Sementara itu, bagian luar dari gravitasi nebula menyebabkan [[materi]] mendingin di sekitar daerah yang padat gangguan serta partikel debu, dan sisa dari cakram protoplanet mulai memisah menjadi cincin. Melalui proses yang dikenal dengan [[akresi (astrofisika)|akresi cepat]], kepingan-kepingan debu dan puing-puing terus menerus mengumpul sehingga terbentuklah [[planet]].<ref name=Goldreich1973/> Bumi terbentuk dengan cara ini sekitar 4,54&nbsp;miliar tahun yang lalu (dengan ketidakpastian 1%){{r|age_earth1c|age_of_earth_faq|USGS1997|age_earth4}} dan proses ini selesai dalam 10–20&nbsp;juta&nbsp;tahun.{{r|Yin}} [[Angin matahari]] dari bintang T Tauri yang baru terbentuk membersihkan sebagian besar materi di dalam cakram yang tidak tergabung dalam objek yang besar. Proses yang sama terjadi pada hampir semua bintang yang baru terbentuk di alam semesta yang menghasilkan [[piringan akresi|cakram akresi]], beberapa di antaranya menghasilkan [[Planet luar surya|planet ekstrasolar]].{{r|Kokubo2002}}

{{Main|Bulan|Asal mula Bulan|Hipotesis tubrukan besar}}

[[Berkas:Giantimpact.gif|jmpl|ka|280px|Ilustrasi terbentuknya bulan yang disebabkan tumbukan antara [[protoplanet]] dengan Bumi.]]

 

Teori pembentukan Bulan harus dapat menjelaskan beberapa fakta berikut.

Dengan cara yang sama selama periode Bumi bola salju sebagian besar permukaan benua tertutup dengan [[permafrost]] yang kembali menurunkan pelapukan kimia, sehingga meningkatkan pembentukan es. Ada hipotesis alternatif yang mengatakan bahwa ada cukup banyak karbon dioksida yang keluar melalui lubang vulkanik menghasilkan efek rumah kaca yang meningkatkan suhu global.{{r|Hoffman}} Peningkatan aktivitas vulkanik ini dihasilkan oleh pecahnya Rodinia pada kisaran waktu yang sama.

 

{{clear}}

 

== Eon Fanerozoikum ==

{{Main|Fanerozoikum}}

Fanerozoikum adalah [[eon]] yang sedang berjalan saat ini di Bumi. Eon ini dimulai sekitar {{nowrap|542 juta}} tahun yang lalu. Eon ini dibagi menjadi tiga era—[[Paleozoikum]], [[Mesozoikum]] dan [[Kenozoikum]],{{r|shortTimeScale}}—dan merupakan masa ketika kehidupan multiseluler terdiversifikasi sangat luas ke hampir semua organisme yang dikenal saat ini.<ref>{{cite book|title= The Dyanmic Earth System|last= Patwardhan|first= A.M.|authorlink=|coauthors=|year= 2010|publisher= PHI Learning Private Limited|location= New Delhi|isbn=978-81-203-4052-7|page= 146|pages=|url= http://books.google.com/?id=EOgZJZaA-Q0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=dynamic+earth+system#v=onepage&q=dynamic%20earth%20system&f=false|accessdate=}}</ref>

 

==== Letusan Kambrium ====

{{main|Letusan Kambrium}}

Dari catatan [[fosil]] yang ditemukan, tingkat evolusi kehidupan dipercepat pada periode Kambrium ({{nowrap|540–488 juta}} tahun yang lalu).{{r|shortTimeScale}} Munculnya banyak [[spesies]], [[filum]], serta bentuk kehidupan baru secara tiba-tiba pada periode ini disebut [[letusan Kambrium]]. Kecepatan tingkat evolusi ini sangat berbeda dibandingkan masa sebelum dan sesudahnya.{{r|Lunine|page1=229}} Pada periode [[Ediakarium]] bentuk kehidupan masih primitif dan tidak mudah untuk dimasukkan ke dalam kelompok modern, namun pada akhir periode Kambrium filum yang paling modern sudah hadir. Perkembangan anggota tubuh yang keras seperti kerang, [[kerangka]], atau binatang bercangkang luar seperti [[moluska]], ''[[echinodermata]]'', [[lili laut]] dan [[artropoda]] membuat proses terjadinya fosil lebih mudah dibandingkan nenek moyangnya dari eon Proterozoikum. Hal ini yang menyebabkan kehidupan pada periode Kambrium lebih banyak diketahui dibandingkan kehidupan pada periode sebelumnya.

 

==== Tektonik, paleogeografi, dan iklim Paleozoikum ====

[[Berkas:Pangaea continents.svg|lang=id|jmpl|300px|ka|[[Pangea]] adalah [[daftar benua raksasa|benua raksasa terakhir]] yang ada pada masa 300–180 juta tahun yang lalu. Garis-garis besar benua modern dan daratan lainnya ditunjukkan pada peta ini.]]

 

Suhu pada awal era Paleozoikum lebih hangat dari iklim saat ini, namun pada akhir periode [[Ordovisium]] mengalami zaman es yang singkat saat gletser menutupi kutub selatan, tempat benua besar [[Gondwana]]. Pada akhir zaman es Ordovisium, terjadi beberapa [[peristiwa kepunahan|kepunahan massal]], ketika banyak ''[[brachiopoda]]'', [[trilobit]], ''[[bryozoa]]'', dan [[karang]] lenyap dari jejak [[fosil]]. Spesies laut ini mungkin tidak bisa bertahan menghadapi penurunan suhu air laut.{{r|bbc-ordovician}} Setelah kepunahan tersebut, spesies baru berevolusi, lebih beragam dan lebih mampu beradaptasi.

=== Era Kenozoikum ===

{{Main|Kenozoikum}}

 

==== Diversifikasi mamalia ====

Melacak [[asal mula bahasa]] merupakan hal sulit; tidak jelas apakah ''Homo erectus'' dapat berbicara ataukah kemampuannya belum muncul sebelum keberadaan ''Homo sapiens''.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=67}} Seiring dengan pertambahan ukuran otak, persalinan terjadi lebih dini, sebelum kepala bayi terlalu besar untuk melewati [[pelvis]]. Akibatnya, mereka mengalami [[neuroplastisitas]] berlebih, sehingga memiliki banyak kapasitas untuk belajar dan membutuhkan periode ketergantungan yang lebih lama. Kecakapan sosial menjadi lebih kompleks, bahasa menjadi lebih berkembang, dan peralatan kian diperbagus. Hal ini berperan dalam perkembangan hubungan sosial dan intelektual lebih lanjut.{{r|McNeill|page1=7}} Manusia modern (''[[Homo sapiens]]'') dipercaya mulai ada sejak 200.000&nbsp;tahun lalu—atau lebih jauh lagi—di benua [[Afrika]]; fosil tertua yang ditemukan telah terukur berasal dari masa 160.000&nbsp;tahun lalu.{{r|gibbons}}

 

 

==== Peradaban manusia ====

{{Main|Sejarah dunia}}

{{Further|Sejarah Afrika|Sejarah Amerika|Sejarah Antartika|Sejarah Eurasia}}

[[Berkas:Trilla del trigo en el Antiguo Egipto.jpg|kiri|240px|jmpl|[[Mural]] yang menggambarkan usaha pertanian, peninggalan zaman [[Mesir Kuno]], dibuat sekitar 1400 SM. Pertanian merupakan aspek penting dalam [[Revolusi Neolitik]]. Di tempat yang menyediakan lahan pertanian, manusia telah meninggalkan gaya hidup nomadis.]]

Selama lebih dari 90% dari [[sejarah dunia|masa keberadaannya di Bumi]], ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' hidup dalam kelompok kecil sebagai [[pemburu-pengumpul makanan]] nomadis.{{r|McNeill|page1=8}} Ketika [[bahasa]] menjadi lebih kompleks, kemampuan mengingat dan menyebarkan informasi menghasilkan replikator baru: [[meme]].{{r|dawkins-sg}} Gagasan-gagasan dapat saling ditukar secara cepat dan diturunkan dari generasi ke generasi. [[Evolusi kebudayaan]] berhasil mendahului [[Evolusi|evolusi biologis]], dan catatan [[sejarah]] pun dimulai. Antara masa 8500 dan 7000 [[Sebelum Masehi]] (SM), manusia di kawasan [[Hilal Subur]] di [[Timur Tengah]] memulai budi daya tanaman dan hewan yang sistematis; suatu budaya yang kini dikenal di seluruh dunia sebagai [[pertanian]].{{r|Tudge}} Hal ini menyebar ke daerah-daerah sekitarnya, serta berkembang secara mandiri di sejumlah kawasan dunia, hingga akhirnya sebagian besar ''Homo sapiens'' hidup menetap di permukiman permanen sebagai petani. Tidak semua masyarakat dunia meninggalkan tradisi nomadis, terutama manusia yang tinggal di kawasan terisolasi yang miskin tanaman pertanian, seperti [[Australia]].{{r|diamond}} Bagaimanapun, pada peradaban-peradaban yang mengembangkan pertanian, stabilitas relatif dan pertambahan produktivitas karena bercocok tanam mengakibatkan populasi bertambah.

Periode dari 900–200 SM dinyatakan sebagai [[Zaman Poros]] bagi peradaban manusia, yaitu zaman ketika fondasi spiritualitas umat manusia terjadi serentak dan mandiri di beberapa belahan dunia. Tradisi filosofis yang berkembang pada zaman tersebut meliputi: [[monoteisme]] di [[Persia]] dan [[Kanaan]]; [[Platonisme]] di [[Yunani]]; [[Buddhisme]], [[Jainisme]], dan [[Hinduisme]] di India; [[Konfusianisme]] dan [[Taoisme]] di Tiongkok. Berbagai adat dan [[sains]] (dalam bentuk primitif) bermunculan, seperti sistem [[teokrasi]] dan produksi [[kereta perang]]. Di [[Mediterania]] dan [[Timur Tengah]], peradaban-peradaban kuno berkembang dan melakukan perdagangan, serta bertempur demi wilayah dan sumber daya. Tak lama kemudian sistem [[imperium]] mulai berkembang. Sekitar 500 SM, ada sejumlah peradaban maju di [[Timur Tengah]], [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Tiongkok]], dan [[Yunani]], yang sedang menuju masa kejayaannya atau menuju masa keruntuhannya.{{r|McNeill|page1=3}} Beberapa peradaban bertahan hingga abad modern meskipun tidak sejaya dulu, dan beberapa di antaranya memberi pengaruh atau fondasi bagi [[Dunia Barat]], seperti [[Yunani Kuno|Yunani]] dan [[Romawi Kuno]]. Seiring perkembangan peradaban, beberapa agama didirikan, seperti [[Kristen]] (abad ke-1) dan [[Islam]] (abad ke-7).

 

Pada abad ke-14, zaman [[Renaisans]] dimulai di [[Italia]] dengan kemajuan dalam bidang agama, seni, dan sains.{{r|McNeill|page1=317–319}} Pada masa itu, Gereja Kristen sebagai entitas politik kehilangan sebagian besar kekuasaannya. Tahun 1492, [[Kristoforus Kolumbus]] mencapai benua [[Amerika]], mengawali perubahan besar pada [[Dunia Baru]]. Peradaban Eropa mulai berubah sejak 1500-an, mengantarkannya pada [[Revolusi Ilmiah]] dan [[Revolusi Industri|Industri]]. Benua tersebut mulai menebarkan dominansi politis dan budaya pada masyarakat lain di seluruh dunia pada suatu masa yang dikenal sebagai Era Kolonial.{{r|McNeill|page1=295–299}} Pada abad ke-18, gerakan kultural yang dikenal sebagai [[Abad Pencerahan]] kemudian membentuk mentalitas bangsa Eropa dan berperan penting dalam sikap sekuler mereka. Dari tahun 1914 sampai 1918, dan dari 1939 sampai 1945, bangsa-bangsa di seluruh dunia berada dalam [[perang dunia]]. [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]] yang didirikan setelah [[Perang Dunia I]] merupakan usaha pertama dalam membangunan lembaga internasional untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan secara damai. Setelah gagal mencegah [[Perang Dunia II]]—konflik paling berdarah dalam sejarah umat manusia—lembaga tersebut digantikan oleh [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]. Setelah perang usai, banyak negara menyatakan kemerdekannya, baik dengan usaha sendiri maupun pemberian bangsa lain dalam suatu periode [[dekolonisasi]]. [[Amerika Serikat]] dan [[Uni Soviet]] menjadi negara adikuasa untuk sementara, dan terlibat dalam persaingan yang dikenal sebagai [[Perang Dingin]] sampai disolusi di kemudian hari. Seiring transportasi dan komunikasi yang semakin mutakhir, perkara politis dan ekonomi antarbangsa menjadi kian berseluk-beluk. Hal ini dikenal sebagai [[globalisasi]] yang dapat mendatangkan konflik atau kerja sama.

{{Clear}}

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}}

 

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{{Refend}}

== Pranala luar ==

* Valley, John W. "[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=a-cool-early-earth A Cool Early Earth?]" ''[[Scientific American]]''. 2005 October 58–65. – discusses the timing of the formation of the oceans and other major events in Earth’s early history.

* [[Paul Davies|Davies, Paul]]. "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2005/dec/20/comment.science Quantum leap of life]". ''[[The Guardian]]''. 2005 December 20. – discusses speculation on the role of quantum systems in the origin of life

{{portal bar|Astronomi}}

 

{{Authority control}}

[[Kategori:Bumi| ]]

[[Kategori:Geokronologi]]