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[[Berkas:Dollarnote siegel hq.jpg|thumb|Mata Ilahi, atau mata Tuhan yang maha melihat, terlihat di sini pada uang kertas US$1, telah diambil oleh beberapa [[orang]] sebagai bukti konspirasi yang melibatkan pendiri Amerika Serikat dan Illuminati.<ref name=Barkun2003/>{{rp|58}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=Micah|last1=Issitt|first2=Carlyn|last2=Main|title=Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2014|isbn=978-1-61069-478-0}}</ref>{{rp|47–49}}]]
'''Teori konspirasi''' adalah penjelasan untuk suatu peristiwa atau situasi yang memicu persekongkolan oleh kelompok-kelompok jahat dan berkuasa, seringkali bermotif politik,<ref name="Harambam-Aupers 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Harambam |first1=Jaron |last2=Aupers |first2=Stef |date=August 2021 |title=From the unbelievable to the undeniable: Epistemological pluralism, or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims |journal=European Journal of Cultural Studies |publisher=SAGE Publications |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=990–1008 |doi=10.1177/1367549419886045 |doi-access=free |issn=1460-3551}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Ted |last=Goertzel |date=December 1994 |title=Belief in conspiracy theories |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-psychology_1994-12_15_4/page/n126 |journal=Political Psychology |publisher=Wiley on behalf of the International Society of Political Psychology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=731–742 |doi=10.2307/3791630 |issn=1467-9221 |jstor=3791630 |quote=''"explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups"''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite OED |conspiracy theory}} ''"the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; ''spec''. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event"''</ref> ketika penjelasan lain lebih mungkin.<ref name="Harambam-Aupers 2021"/><ref name="BrothertonFrench2013">{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|last3=Pickering|first3=Alan D.|title=Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=4|year=2013|page=279|issn=1664-1078|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279|pmid=23734136|pmc=3659314|s2cid=16685781| quote=A conspiracist belief can be described as 'the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable'.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="probability">Additional sources:
*{{cite book |last1=Aaronovitch |first1=David |title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History |date=2009 |publisher=Jonathan Cape |isbn=9780224074704 |page=253 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icxkMJK-WmgC|access-date=17 August 2019 |language=en |quote=It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|title=Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|volume=28|issue=2|year=2014|pages=238–248|issn=0888-4080|doi=10.1002/acp.2995| quote=A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Jonason |first1=Peter Karl |last2=March |first2=Evita |last3=Springer |first3=Jordan |title=Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=12 |year=2019 |pages=e0225964 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0225964 |pmid=31794581 |pmc=6890261 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1425964M |quote=Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Thresher-Andrews |first1=Christopher |title=An introduction into the world of conspiracy |journal=PsyPAG Quarterly |volume=88 |year=2013 |pages=5–8 |url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |quote=Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.}}</ref> Istilah ini memiliki konotasi negatif, menyiratkan bahwa banding ke konspirasi didasarkan pada prasangka atau bukti yang tidak cukup.<ref name=Byford>{{Cite book |title=Conspiracy theories : a critical introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/conspiracytheori0000byfo |last=Byford |first=Jovan |date=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230349216 |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |oclc=802867724}}</ref> Teori konspirasi tidak sama dengan konspirasi; sebaliknya, ini mengacu pada konspirasi yang dihipotesiskan dengan karakteristik tertentu, seperti oposisi terhadap konsensus arus utama di antara orang-orang (seperti [[ilmuwan]] atau [[sejarawan]]) yang memenuhi syarat untuk mengevaluasi keakuratannya.<ref name="Andrade2020">{{cite journal |last=Andrade |first=Gabriel |date=April 2020 |title=Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy |publisher=Springer on behalf of the European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=505–518 |doi=10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6 |doi-access=free |issn=1572-8633 |pmc=7161434 |pmid=32301040 |s2cid=215787658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508193924/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2020 |access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref>
Teori konspirasi menolak pemalsuan dan diperkuat oleh penalaran melingkar: baik bukti yang menentang konspirasi dan tidak adanya bukti untuk itu ditafsirkan kembali sebagai bukti kebenarannya,<ref name="Byford" /><ref name="Keeley1999">{{Cite journal |last=Keeley |first=Brian L. |date=March 1999 |title=Of Conspiracy Theories |journal=The Journal of Philosophy |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=109–126 |doi=10.2307/2564659|jstor=2564659 }}</ref> dimana konspirasi menjadi masalah iman daripada sesuatu yang dapat dibuktikan atau disangkal.<ref name="Barkun2003">{{cite book|last1=Barkun|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Barkun|title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultureconspirac00bark_286/page/n15 3]–4|title-link=A Culture of Conspiracy}}</ref><ref name="Barkun2011">{{cite book|last1=Barkun|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Barkun|title=Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11|url=https://archive.org/details/chasingphantomsr11bark|date=2011|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|page=[https://archive.org/details/chasingphantomsr11bark/page/n30 10]}}</ref> Studi telah menghubungkan kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi dengan ketidakpercayaan pada otoritas dan sinisme politik.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Swami |first=Viren |date=2012-08-06 |title=Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |location=London, UK |volume=3 |pages=280 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=3412387 |pmid=22888323|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Radnitz |first=Scott |title=Citizen Cynics: How People Talk and Think about Conspiracy |date=2021 |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780197573532.001.0001/oso-9780197573532-chapter-9 |publication-place=University of Washington |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197573532.003.0009 |isbn=978-0-19-757353-2 |access-date=2022-05-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jolley |first1=Daniel |last2=Douglas |first2=Karen M. |date=2014-02-20 |title=The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |publication-place=University of Kent |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=e89177 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0089177 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3930676 |pmid=24586574|bibcode=2014PLoSO...989177J |doi-access=free }}</ref> Beberapa peneliti menyarankan bahwa '''ide konspirasi'''—kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi—mungkin berbahaya secara psikologis atau patologis,<ref name="Freeman 595–604">{{Cite journal|last1=Freeman|first1=Daniel|last2=Bentall|first2=Richard P.|date=29 March 2017|title=The concomitants of conspiracy concerns|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|language=en|volume=52|issue=5|pages=595–604|doi=10.1007/s00127-017-1354-4|issn=0933-7954|pmc=5423964|pmid=28352955}}</ref><ref name="Barron 156–159">{{Cite journal|last1=Barron|first1=David|last2=Morgan|first2=Kevin|last3=Towell|first3=Tony|last4=Altemeyer|first4=Boris|last5=Swami|first5=Viren|date=November 2014|title=Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=70|pages=156–159|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/14570/1/1-s2.0-S0191886914003821-main.pdf}}</ref> dan itu berkorelasi dengan pemikiran analitis yang lebih rendah, kecerdasan rendah, proyeksi psikologis, paranoia, dan Machiavellianisme.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|date=12 April 2011|title=Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=544–552|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x|pmid=21486312|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103180834/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|archive-date=3 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Psikolog biasanya mengaitkan kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi dan menemukan konspirasi di mana tidak ada sejumlah kondisi psikopatologis seperti paranoid, skizotip, narsisisme, dan keterikatan yang tidak aman,<ref name="Andrade2020"/> atau ke bentuk bias kognitif yang disebut "persepsi pola ilusi".<ref>{{cite web |title=Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/conspiracy-theory-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception-cognitive-science |first=Signe |last=Dean |publisher=Science Alert |date=23 October 2017 |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/37463-conspiracy-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception |first=Sarah |last=Sloat |publisher=Inverse |date=17 October 2017 |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref> Namun, konsensus ilmiah saat ini menyatakan bahwa sebagian besar ahli teori konspirasi tidak patologis, justru karena keyakinan mereka pada akhirnya bergantung pada kecenderungan kognitif yang tertanam secara neurologis pada spesies manusia dan mungkin memiliki asal-usul evolusioner yang mendalam, termasuk kecenderungan alami terhadap kecemasan dan deteksi agensi.<ref name="Andrade2020"/>
Secara historis, teori konspirasi telah dikaitkan erat dengan prasangka, propaganda, perburuan penyihir, perang, dan genosida.<ref name="HR">{{cite journal |author-last=Frankfurter |author-first=David |date=February 2021 |title=Religion in the Mirror of the Other: The Discursive Value of Cult-Atrocity Stories in Mediterranean Antiquity |editor1-last=Copp |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Wedemeyer |editor2-first=Christian K. | |journal=History of Religions |publisher=University of Chicago Press for the University of Chicago Divinity School |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=188–208 |doi=10.1086/711943 |issn=0018-2710 |jstor=00182710 |s2cid=233429880 |lccn=64001081 |oclc=299661763}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Nefes |author-first=Turkay |year=2018 |chapter=Framing of a Conspiracy Theory: The Efendi Series |editor1-last=Asprem |editor1-first=Egil |editor2-last=Dyrendal |editor2-first=Asbjørn |editor3-last=Robertson |editor3-first=David G. |title=Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=17 |doi=10.1163/9789004382022_020 |isbn=978-90-04-38150-6 |issn=1874-6691 |pages=407–422 |s2cid=158560266 |quote=Conspiracy theories often function as popular conduits of ethno-religious hatred and conflict.}}</ref> Mereka sering sangat diyakini oleh para pelaku serangan teroris, dan digunakan sebagai pembenaran oleh Timothy McVeigh dan Anders Breivik, serta oleh pemerintah seperti Nazi Jerman, Uni Soviet, dan Turki.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Göknar |first1=Erdağ |title=Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review) |journal=The Middle East Journal |date=2019 |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=336–337 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/730239 |language=en |issn=1940-3461}}</ref> Penyangkalan AIDS oleh pemerintah Afrika Selatan, dimotivasi oleh teori konspirasi, menyebabkan sekitar 330.000 kematian akibat AIDS, QAnon dan penyangkalan tentang hasil pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat 2020 menyebabkan serangan Capitol Amerika Serikat 2021,<ref name="Nature 2021">{{cite magazine |last=Tollefson |first=Jeff |date=4 February 2021 |title=Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down |url=https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf |url-status=live |magazine=Nature |volume=590 |pages=192–193 |publisher=Nature Research |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y |doi-access=free |issn=1476-4687 |lccn=12037118 |pmid=33542489 |s2cid=231818589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427105931/https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Crossley 2021">{{cite journal |last=Crossley |first=James |date=September 2021 |title=The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID |journal=Journal for the Study of the New Testament |publisher=SAGE Publications |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=93–111 |doi=10.1177/0142064X211025464 |doi-access=free |issn=1745-5294 |s2cid=237329082 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=QAnon Capitol Siege Trump |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/13/qanon-capitol-siege-trump/ |access-date=22 February 2021}}</ref> sementara kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi tentang makanan yang dimodifikasi secara genetik membuat pemerintah Zambia menolak bantuan makanan selama kelaparan, pada saat tiga juta orang di negara itu menderita kelaparan. Teori konspirasi merupakan hambatan yang signifikan untuk perbaikan kesehatan masyarakat, mendorong oposisi terhadap vaksinasi dan fluoridasi air antara lain, dan telah dikaitkan dengan wabah penyakit yang dapat dicegah dengan vaksin. Efek lain dari teori konspirasi termasuk berkurangnya kepercayaan pada bukti ilmiah, radikalisasi dan penguatan ideologi kelompok-kelompok ekstremis, dan konsekuensi negatif bagi perekonomian.
Teori konspirasi yang dulunya hanya terbatas pada kalangan pinggiran telah menjadi hal yang lumrah di media massa, internet, dan media sosial,<ref name="Andrade2020"/> muncul sebagai fenomena budaya akhir abad ke-20 dan awal abad ke-21.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=58}} Mereka tersebar luas di seluruh dunia dan sering diyakini secara umum, beberapa bahkan dipegang oleh mayoritas penduduk. Intervensi untuk mengurangi terjadinya kepercayaan konspirasi termasuk mempertahankan masyarakat yang terbuka dan meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir analitis masyarakat umum.
[[Kategori:Teori konspirasi| ]]▼
== Lihat pula ==
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* {{annotated link|Kebohongan besar}}
* {{annotated link|Petik ceri}}
* {{annotated link|Berita palsu}}
* {{annotated link|Daftar topik yang dikarakteristikkan sebagai ilmu semu}}
* {{annotated link|Pisau Ockham}}
* {{annotated link|Propaganda}}
* {{annotated link|Sejarah semu}}
* {{annotated link|Ilmu semu}}
* {{annotated link|Takhayul}}
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== Referensi ==
'''Catatan informasi'''
{{notelist}}
'''Kutipan'''
{{reflist}}
'''Bacaan lanjutan'''
* {{Cite book|last=Aaronovitch|first=David|title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History|year=2010|publisher=Riverhead|isbn=978-1-59448-895-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/voodoohistoriesr0000aaro}}
* {{cite book | editor = Arnold, Gordon B. | year = 2008 | title = Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics | url = https://archive.org/details/conspiracytheory0000arno | page = 200 | publisher = Praeger Publishers | isbn = 978-0-275-99462-4}}
* Burnett, Thom. ''Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories''
* Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight. "Bridging the great divide: conspiracy theory research for the 21st century." ''Diogenes'' (2016): 0392192116669289. [http://hssfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/KX-48-20-abstracts.pdf online]
* {{cite book|author=Chase, Alston|year=2003|title=Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-02002-1|url=https://archive.org/details/harvardunabomber00chas}}
* {{cite book | editor = Coward, Barry |year = 2004 | title = Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | isbn = 978-0-7546-3564-2}}
* {{cite journal|date=23 October 2009|title=Conspiracy Theories|journal=CQ Researcher|volume=19|issue=37|pages=885–908|issn=1056-2036|url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy%20Theories.pdf|access-date=2022-07-16|archive-date=2010-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215023612/http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy%20Theories.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite news | last1 = Cziesche | first1 = Dominik | author2 = Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert | year = 2003 |url= https://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/cover-story-panoply-of-the-absurd-a-265160.html | title = Panoply of the Absurd | work = Der Spiegel | access-date = 6 June 2006 }}
* De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.) [https://www.gesis.org/en/hsr/full-text-archive/2013/381-security-and-conspiracy/ ''Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century'']. Historical Social Research 38, Special Issue, 2013
* Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane. ''Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid''. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-62356-091-1}}.
* Goertzel, Ted. "Belief in conspiracy theories." ''Political Psychology'' (1994): 731–742. [http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831210103/http://crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc |date=2006-08-31 }}
* Harris, Lee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130114231139/http://american.com/archive/2013/january/the-trouble-with-conspiracy-theories ''"The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories"'']. The American, 12 January 2013.
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The paranoid style in American politics'' (1954). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170116220729/http://www.fuminyang.com/michelle/Paranoid%20Style.pdf online]
* {{cite book|author=Johnson, George|year=1983|title=Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics|location=Los Angeles|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher|isbn=978-0-87477-275-3|url=https://archive.org/details/architectsoffear00john}}
* {{cite book |author1=McConnachie, James |author2=Tudge, Robin | year = 2005 | title = The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories |url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetocons0000mcco_l5y7 | publisher = Rough Guides | isbn = 978-1-84353-445-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Melley, Timothy|year=1999|title=Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America|location=Ithaca, New York|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8606-7}}
* {{cite web |first = James B. |last = Meigs |year = 2006 |url= http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html |title = The Conspiracy Industry |work = Popular Mechanics |publisher = Hearst Communications, Inc. |access-date = 13 October 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061024062122/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html |archive-date = 24 October 2006 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay Salim | year = 2012 | title = The history of the social constructions of Dönmes | journal = Journal of Historical Sociology | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 413–39 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay Salim | year = 2013 | title = 'Political parties' perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey' | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 247–64 | doi = 10.1111/1467-954X.12016 | s2cid = 145632390 }}
* Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style (s) of mass opinion." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 58.4 (2014): 952–966. [http://hon3397p.wp.txstate.edu/files/2015/08/OliverWood.pdf online]
* {{cite news |last = Parsons |first = Charlotte |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1561199.stm |title = Why we need conspiracy theories |work = BBC News – Americas |publisher = BBC |access-date=26 June 2006 |date=24 September 2001}}
* {{cite book|author=Pipes, Daniel|year=1998|title=The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy|url=https://archive.org/details/hiddenhand00dani|location=New York|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-17688-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Pipes, Daniel|year=1997|title=Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From|url=https://archive.org/details/conspiracyhowpar0000pipe|location=New York|publisher=The Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-87111-0}}
* {{cite journal |title=Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_philosophy-of-the-social-sciences_1995-03_25_1/page/3 |journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences |year=1995 |last=Pigden |first=Charles |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=3–34 |doi=10.1177/004839319502500101|s2cid=143602969 }}
* {{cite book|author=Sagan, Carl|year=1996|title=The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark|url=https://archive.org/details/demonhauntedworl0000saga|location=New York|publisher=The Random House|isbn=978-0-394-53512-8}}
* Slosson, W. [https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up ''"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"'']. The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, N°. 14, 1917.
* Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures." ''Journal of Political Philosophy'' 17.2 (2009): 202–227. [http://www.ask-force.org/web/Discourse/Sunstein-Conspiracy-Theories-2009.pdf online]
* Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, ''American Conspiracy Theories'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199351813/ excerpt]
* Uscinski, Joseph E. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016" [http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183 ''POLITICO Magazine'' (Aug 22, 2016)]
* {{cite book|author1=Vankin, Jonathan|author2=John Whalen|year=2004|title=The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time|url=https://archive.org/details/80greatestconspi0000vank|location=New York|publisher=Citadel Press|isbn=978-0-8065-2531-0}}
* Wood, Gordon S. "Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (1982): 402–441. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919580 in jstor]
== Pranala luar ==
{{Wikiquotes}}
{{Wiktionary|conspiracy theory}}
{{Commons category|Conspiracy theories}}
* [https://iep.utm.edu/conspira/ Conspiracy Theories], ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''
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[[Kategori:Hambatan untuk berpikir kritis]]
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