Tradisi lisan: Perbedaan antara revisi

Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
MastiBot (bicara | kontrib)
k bot Menambah: pl:Tradycja oralna
InternetArchiveBot (bicara | kontrib)
Add 2 books for Wikipedia:Pemastian (20221113sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.2) (GreenC bot
 
(32 revisi perantara oleh 16 pengguna tidak ditampilkan)
Baris 1:
{{terjemah|Inggris|Oral tradition}}
[[Berkas:Kyrgyz Manaschi, Karakol.jpg|thumbjmpl|Seorang [[Kirgizstan]] tengah menuturkan ''Epos Manas'']]
 
'''Tradisi lisan''', '''budaya lisan''' dan '''adat lisan''' adalah pesan atau kesaksian yang disampaikan secara turun-temurun dari satu generasi ke generasi berikutnya.<ref name = "Vansina">[[Jan Vansina|Vansina, Jan]]: "Oral Tradition as History", 1985, James Currey Publishers, ISBN 08525500730-85255-007-3, 9780852550076; halaman 27 dan 28, di mana Vasina mendefinisikan tradisi lisan sebagai "pesan verbal berupa pernyataan yang dilaporkan dari masa silam kepada generasi masa kini" di mana "pesan itu haruslah berupa pernyataan yang dituturkan, dinyanyikan, atau diiringi alat musik"; "Haruslah ada penyampaian melalui tutur kata dari mulut sekurang-kurangnya sejarak satu generasi". Dia mengemukakan bahwa "Definisi kami adalah definisi yang berfungsi bagi kalangan sejarawan. Para sosiolog, bahasawan, atau sarjana seni verbal mengajukan pendekatannya masing-masing, yang untuk kasus khusus (sosiologi) mungkin saja menekankan pengetahuan umum, fitur kedua yaitu membedakan bahasa dari dialog (bahasawan) biasa, dan fitur terakhir adalah bentuk dan isi yang mendefinisi seni (pendongeng)." </ref> <ref name = "Ki-Zerbo">Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: "Methodology and African Prehistory", 1990, UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa; James Currey Publishers, ISBN 085255091X0-85255-091-X, 9780852550915; halaman 7; "Tradisi lisan dan metodologinya" halaman 54-61; pada halaman 54: "Tradisi lisan dapat didefinisi sebagai kesaksian yang disampaikan secara verbal dari satu generasi ke generasi berikutnya. Persifatan khusus sedemikian adalah tentang keverbalannya dan cara bagaimana ia disampaikan."</ref> Pesan atau kesaksian itu disampaikan melalui ucapan, pidato, nyanyian, dan dapat berbentuk pantun, cerita rakyat, nasehatnasihat, balada, atau lagu. Pada cara ini, maka mungkinlah suatu masyarakat dapat menyampaikan [[sejarah lisan]], [[sastra lisan]], [[hukum lisan]] dan [[pengetahuan]] lainnya ke generasi penerusnya tanpa melibatkan [[menulis|bahasa tulisan]]. Sehingga, tradisi lisan harus dilestarikan karena tradisi lisan merupakan salah satu sumber sejarah.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Cara Masyarakat Mewariskan Tradisi Lisan Kepada Generasi Penerusnya|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/08/24/153000869/cara-masyarakat-mewariskan-tradisi-lisan-kepada-generasi-penerusnya|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-09-26|editor-last=Welianto|editor-first=Ari|first=Ari|last=Welianto}}</ref><!--
 
<!--
For the purposes of some disciplines, a narrower definition of oral tradition may be appropriate.<ref name = "Vansina"/> Sociologists might also emphasize a requirement that the material is held in common by a group of people, over several generations, and might distinguish oral tradition from [[testimony]] or [[oral history]].<ref>[[David Henige|Henige, David]]. Oral, but Oral What? The Nomenclatures of Orality and Their Implications Oral Tradition, 3/1-2 (1988): 229-38. p 232; Henige cites Jan Vansina (1985). Oral tradition as history. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press</ref> In a general sense, "oral tradition" refers to the transmission of [[culture|cultural]] material through vocal utterance, and was long held to be a key descriptor of [[folklore]] (a criterion no longer rigidly held by all folklorists).<ref>Degh, Linda. American Folklore and the Mass Media. Bloomington:IUP, 1994, p. 31</ref> As an [[academic discipline]], it refers both to a set of objects of study and a [[Scientific method|method]] by which they are studied<ref>Dundes, Alan, “Editor’s Introduction” to “The Theory of Oral Composition,” [[John Miles Foley]]. Bloomington, IUP, 1988, pp. ix-xii</ref> -- the method may be called variously "oral traditional theory," "the theory of [[Oral-Formulaic Composition]]" and the "Parry-Lord theory" (after two of its founders; see below) The study of oral tradition is distinct from the academic discipline of [[oral history]],<ref>Henige, David. Oral, but Oral What? The Nomenclatures of Orality and Their Implications Oral Tradition, 3/1-2 (1988): 229-38. p 232; Henige cites Jan Vansina (1985). Oral tradition as history. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press</ref> which is the recording of personal memories and histories of those who experienced historical eras or events.<ref>[http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/oral_history.html Oral History]</ref> It is also distinct from the study of [[orality]], which can be defined as [[thought]] and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of [[literacy]] (especially writing and print) are unfamiliar to most of the population.<ref>Ong, Walter, S.J., “Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word.” London: Methuen, 1982 p 12 </ref>
-->
 
== Sejarah ==
== Pengkajian tradisi lisan ==
Menurut John Foley, tradisi lisan telah menjadi tradisi manusia zaman dahulu yang ditemukan di "seluruh penjuru dunia". Arkeologi modern telah mengungkap bukti upaya manusia untuk melestarikan dan menyebarkan seni dan pengetahuan yang bergantung sepenuhnya atau sebagian pada tradisi lisan, di berbagai budaya:
{{Quote|
Alkitab Yahudi-Kristen mengungkapkan akar-akar tradisional lisan ini; manuskrip Eropa abad pertengahan ditulis oleh penulis; geometris dari Yunani kuno mencerminkan gaya lisan Homer. Memang, apabila dekade terakhir milenium ini telah mengajarkan kita apapun, pasti tradisi lisan itu tidak pernah menjadi yang lain yang kita tudingkan; itu tidak akan menjadi teknologi komunikasi awal yang primitif seperti yang kita pikirkan. Sebaliknya, jika seluruh kenyataan diceritakan, tradisi lisan menonjol sebagai satu-satunya teknologi komunikatif yang paling dominan dari spesies kita sebagai fakta sejarah dan, di banyak bidang masih sebagai realitas kontemporer.
|John Foley|Signs of Orality<ref name="MacKay1999p1">{{cite book|author=John Foley|editor=E. Anne MacKay|title=Signs of Orality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkfRvkgDTOsC |year=1999|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-9004112735|pages=1–2}}</ref>}}
===Asia===
Di Indonesia terdapat sekitar 4.521 tradisi lisan yang memerlukan perlindungan.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-07-17|title=4.521 Tradisi Lisan Memerlukan Perlindungan|url=https://www.kompas.id/baca/dikbud/2020/07/17/4-521-tradisi-lisan-memerlukan-perlindungan/|work=[[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas.id]]|access-date=2020-09-26|last=Mediana}}</ref> Hal itu dikarenakan arus globalisasi yang berdampak pada ditinggalkannya tradisi lisan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-13|title=Mewariskan Tradisi Lisan|url=https://tatkala.co/2020/05/13/mewariskan-tradisi-lisan/|website=tatkala.co|language=en-US|access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> Di Asia penyebaran cerita rakyat, mitologi serta kitab suci di India kuno, dalam agama India yang berbeda, dilakukan dengan tradisi lisan, yang dipelihara dengan tepat dan terperinci [[Vedic chant|mnemonic techniques]].;<ref>{{cite journal|author=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |year=1995|title= Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna|journal= Numen|volume= 42 |number= 1|pages= 21–47|publisher= Brill Academic|jstor= 3270278|doi=10.1163/1568527952598800|url= https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf|hdl=2027.42/43799}}</ref> Kutipan: Teks Buddhis awal juga umumnya diyakini sebagai tradisi lisan, dengan yang pertama dengan membandingkan ketidakkonsistenan dalam versi sastra yang ditransmisikan dari berbagai masyarakat lisan seperti Yunani, Serbia dan budaya lain, kemudian mencatat bahwa sastra Veda juga demikian konsisten dan luas untuk disusun dan disebarkan secara lisan dari generasi ke generasi, tanpa ditulis. Menurut Goody, teks-teks Veda kemungkinan besar melibatkan baik tradisi tertulis maupun lisan, menyebutnya sebagai "produk paralel dari masyarakat melek huruf".
 
=== Sejarah Australia===
Budaya Aborigin Australia telah berkembang pesat dalam tradisi lisan dan sejarah lisan yang diwariskan selama ribuan tahun.
<!--
Dalam penelitian yang diterbitkan pada Februari 2020, bukti baru menunjukkan bahwa gunung berapi [[Budj Bim]] dan [[Tower Hill (volcano)|Tower Hill]] meletus antara 34.000 dan 40.000 tahun yang lalu.<ref name=earlier>{{cite web | first= Sian|last= Johnson | title=Study dates Victorian volcano that buried a human-made axe | website=ABC News | date=26 February 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-26/study-dates-victorian-volcano-that-buried-a-human-made-axe/11991290 | access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> Secara signifikan, ini adalah "batasan usia minimum untuk kehadiran manusia di [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]]", dan juga dapat diartikan sebagai bukti sejarah lisan orang [[Gunditjmara]], orang [[Aborigin Australia]] Victoria barat daya, yang menceritakan letusan gunung berapi menjadi beberapa tradisi lisan tertua yang pernah ada.<ref name="MatchanPhillips2020">{{cite journal|last1=Matchan|first1=Erin L.|last2=Phillips| first2=David|last3=Jourdan| first3=Fred|last4=Oostingh| first4=Korien|title=Early human occupation of southeastern Australia: New insights from 40Ar/39Ar dating of young volcanoes|journal=Geology|year=2020|issn=0091-7613|doi=10.1130/G47166.1}}</ref> Sebuah kapak yang ditemukan di bawah [[abu vulkanik]] pada tahun 1947 telah membuktikan bahwa manusia menghuni wilayah tersebut sebelum letusan Tower Hill.<ref name=earlier/>
[[Berkas:Filip Visnjic guslar.jpg|thumb|right|[[Filip Višnjić]], (1767-1834) [[Serbia]]n blind [[gusle|guslar]]]]
===Yunani Kuno and Timur Tengah===
Oral tradition as a field of study had its origins<ref>The history of the theory of oral tradition was first reported as such by [[John Miles Foley]]; the following overview draws upon Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography, (NY: Garland Publishing, 1985, 1986, 1989); additional material is summarized from the overlapping prefaces to the following volumes: The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology, (Indiana University Press, 1988, 1992); Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); The Singer of Tales in Performance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995) and Comparative Research on Oral Traditions: A Memorial for Milman Parry (Columbus, OH: Slavica Publishers, 1987).</ref> in the work of the Serb scholar [[Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic]] (1787-1864), a contemporary and friend of the [[Brothers Grimm]]. Vuk pursued similar projects of "salvage folklore" (similar to [[rescue archaeology]]) in the [[cognate]] traditions of the Southern [[Slavs|Slavic]] regions which would later be gathered into [[Yugoslavia]], and with the same admixture of [[Romanticism|romantic]] and [[nationalistic]] interests (he considered all those speaking [[Serbo-Croat]] as Serbs). Somewhat later, but as part of the same scholarly enterprise of nationalist studies in folklore,<ref>http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/5i/5_radloff.pdf Early Scholarship on Oral Traditions: Radloff, Jousse and Murko "Oral Tradition" 5:1 (1990) 73-90</ref> the [[turcology|turcologist]] [[Vasily Radlov]] (1837-1918) would study the songs of the [[Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast|Kara-Kirghiz]] in what would later become the [[Soviet Union]]; Karadzic and Radloff would provide models for the work of Parry.
Semua literatur Yunani kuno, kata Steve Reece, pada tingkat tertentu bersifat lisan, dan literatur paling awal sepenuhnya demikian.<ref>Reece, Steve. "Orality and Literacy: Ancient Greek Literature as Oral Literature," in David Schenker and Martin Hose (eds.), Companion to Greek Literature (Oxford: Blackwell, 2015) 43-57. [https://www.academia.edu/30640456/Orality_and_Literacy_Ancient_Greek_Literature_as_Oral_Literature Ancient_Greek_Literature_as_Oral_Literature]</ref> Puisi epik [[Homer]], kata Michael Gagarin, sebagian besar disusun, dipertunjukkan dan disebarkan secara lisan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Gagarin |editor=E. Anne MacKay| title=Signs of Orality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkfRvkgDTOsC |year=1999|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-9004112735|pages=163–164}}</ref> Karena cerita rakyat dan legenda dipertunjukkan di depan khalayak yang jauh, para penyanyi akan mengganti nama-nama dalam cerita dengan tokoh atau penguasa lokal untuk memberi cerita bercitarasa lokal dan dengan demikian terhubung dengan penonton, tetapi membuat historisitas tertanam dalam tradisi lisan menjadi tidak bisa diandalkan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wolfgang Kullmann |editor=E. Anne MacKay| title=Signs of Orality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkfRvkgDTOsC |year=1999|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-9004112735|pages=108–109}}</ref> Kurangnya teks yang masih ada tentang tradisi agama Yunani dan Romawi telah membuat para ahli menganggap bahwa ini adalah ritualistik dan ditransmisikan sebagai tradisi lisan, tetapi beberapa ahli tidak setuju bahwa ritual kompleks dalam peradaban Yunani dan Romawi kuno adalah produk eksklusif dari tradisi lisan.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Scheid|editor=Clifford Ando and Jörg Rüpke|title=Religion and Law in Classical and Christian Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uZ5JP8gZgJEC&pg=PA17 |date=2006 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=978-3-515-08854-1|pages=17–28|author-link=John Scheid}}</ref> Kitab Taurat dan literatur Yahudi kuno lainnya, Alkitab Yudeo-Kristen dan teks-teks dari abad-abad awal Kekristenan berakar pada tradisi lisan, dan istilah "Ahli Kitab" merupakan konstruksi abad pertengahan.<ref name="MacKay1999p1"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Delbert Burkett |title=An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&pg=PA124 |year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00720-7 |pages=124–125, 45–46, 106–107, 129–130 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Leslie Baynes|title=The Heavenly Book Motif in Judeo-Christian Apocalypses 200 BCE-200 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1GMP20Ipm4C |year=2011|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-20726-4 |pages=40–41 with footnotes }}<br>{{cite book|author1=Birger Gerhardsson|author2=Eric John Sharpe|title=Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y-2PvkHMDoC |year=1961|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4366-1 |pages=71–78}}</ref> Ini dibuktikan, misalnya, dengan berbagai pernyataan alkitabiah oleh Paulus yang mengakui "tradisi yang diingat sebelumnya yang ia terima" secara lisan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Terence C. Mournet |title=Oral Tradition and Literary Dependency: Variability and Stability in the Synoptic Tradition and Q|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJUy8mw4ZPwC |year=2005|publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-148454-4 |pages=138–141 }}</ref>
-->
=== Penduduk Asli Amerika ===
Sistem penulisan tidak diketahui ada di antara penduduk asli Amerika Utara sebelum berhubungan dengan orang Eropa. Tradisi bercerita lisan tumbuh subur dalam konteks tanpa menggunakan tulisan untuk mencatat dan melestarikan sejarah, pengetahuan ilmiah, dan praktik sosial.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|last=|first=|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n11 1]}}</ref> Sementara beberapa cerita diceritakan untuk hiburan dan mengisi waktu luang, sebagian besar berfungsi sebagai pelajaran praktis dari pengalaman kesukuan yang diterapkan pada masalah moral, sosial, psikologis, dan masalah-masalah lingkungan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|last=|first=|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n13 3]}}</ref> Cerita menggabungkan karakter dan keadaan fiksi, supernatural, atau berlebihan dengan emosi dan moral yang nyata sebagai sarana pengajaran. Alur-alur sering kali mencerminkan situasi kehidupan nyata dan mungkin ditujukan untuk orang-orang tertentu yang dikenal oleh penonton cerita. Dengan cara ini, tekanan sosial dapat dilakukan tanpa secara langsung menyebabkan rasa malu atau pengucilan sosial.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|last=|first=|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n12 2]}}</ref> Misalnya, daripada berteriak, orang tua [[budaya Inuit|Inuit]] mungkin mencegah anak-anak mereka berkeliaran terlalu dekat ke tepi air dengan bercerita tentang monster laut dengan tas untuk anak-anak dalam jangkauannya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/03/13/685533353/a-playful-way-to-teach-kids-to-control-their-anger|title=How Inuit Parents Teach Kids To Control Their Anger|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-29}}</ref> Satu cerita tunggal bisa memberikan puluhan pelajaran.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Stories, Told by Joseph Bruchac|last=Caduto|first=Michael|last2=Bruchac|first2=Michael|publisher=Fulcrum Publishing|year=1991|isbn=978-1-55591-094-5|location=Golden, Colorado|pages=|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00bruc}}</ref> Cerita juga digunakan sebagai sarana untuk menilai apakah gagasan dan praktik budaya tradisional efektif dalam menangani keadaan kontemporer atau apakah harus ditinjau kembali.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|last=|first=|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n16 6]}}</ref> Hal mendongeng penduduk asli Amerika merupakan pengalaman kolaboratif antara pendongeng dan pendengar.
 
Suku asli Amerika umumnya belum memiliki pendongeng kesukuan profesional yang ditandai dengan status sosial.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Red Earth, White Lies: Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact|last=Deloria, jr.|first=Vine|publisher=Scribner|year=1995|isbn=978-0-684-80700-3|location=New York, NY|pages=54}}</ref> Cerita bisa dan dapat diceritakan oleh siapa saja, dengan setiap pendongeng menggunakan infleksi vokal, pilihan kata, konten, atau bentuk mereka sendiri.<ref name=":0"/> Pendongeng tidak hanya memanfaatkan ingatan mereka sendiri, tetapi juga pada ingatan kolektif atau kesukuan yang melampaui pengalaman pribadi tetapi tetap mewakili realitas bersama.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ballenger|first=Bruce|date=Autumn 1997|title=Methods of Memory: On Native American Storytelling|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_college-english_1997-11_59_7/page/789|journal=College English|volume=59|issue=7|pages=789–800|doi=10.2307/378636|jstor=378636}}</ref> Bahasa asli dalam beberapa kasus memiliki hingga dua puluh kata untuk menggambarkan fitur fisik seperti hujan atau salju dan dapat menggambarkan spektrum emosi manusia dengan cara yang sangat tepat, memungkinkan pendongeng untuk menawarkan pandangan pribadi mereka sendiri atas sebuah cerita berdasarkan pengalaman hidup mereka sendiri.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Red Earth, White Lies: Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact|last=Deloria, jr.|first=Vine|publisher=Scribner|year=1995|isbn=978-0-684-80700-3|location=New York, NY|pages=51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lawrence|first=Randee|date=Spring 2016|title=What Our Ancestors Knew: Teaching and Learning Through Storytelling|url=|journal=New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education|volume=2016|issue=149|pages=63–72|doi=10.1002/ace.20177}}</ref> Kelancaran dalam penyampaian cerita memungkinkan cerita untuk diterapkan pada lingkungan sosial yang berbeda sesuai dengan tujuan pendongeng pada saat itu.<ref name=":0" /> Penyajian cerita seseorang sering dianggap sebagai tanggapan terhadap penafsiran orang lain, dengan perubahan plot yang menyarankan cara-cara alternatif untuk menerapkan ide-ide tradisional pada kondisi saat ini.<ref name=":0" /> Pendengar mungkin telah mendengar cerita tersebut berkali-kali, atau bahkan mungkin pernah menceritakan cerita yang sama diri mereka sendiri.<ref name=":0" /> Hal ini tidak mengurangi makna cerita, karena keingintahuan tentang apa yang terjadi selanjutnya kurang menjadi prioritas daripada mendengar perspektif baru tentang tema dan plot-plot terkenal.<ref name=":0" /> Pendongeng yang lebih tua umumnya tidak peduli dengan perbedaan antara versi peristiwa sejarah mereka dan versi suku-suku tetangga tentang peristiwa serupa, seperti dalam cerita asal.<ref name=":1" /> Cerita kesukuan dianggap valid dalam kerangka acuan dan pengalaman suku itu sendiri.<ref name=":1" />
=== Milman Parry dan Albert Lord ===
<!--
Shortly thereafter, [[Milman Parry]] (1902-1935), pursuing a degree in [[Classical antiquity|Classics]] at the [[University of California]], Berkeley, would begin to grapple with what was then called the "[[Homeric Question]]," usually framed as "who was [[Homer]]?" and "what are the Homeric poems?" <ref name="autogenerated1">Foley, John Miles. The Theory of Oral Composition. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, Chapters 1 & 2</ref>The Homeric question actually consists of a series of related inquiries, and Parry's contribution, which drew upon and synthesized the insights of previous scholars including [http://www.marceljousse.co.za Marcel Jousse], [[Matija Murko]] and [[Arnold van Gennep]], was to reconsider the foundational assumptions which framed the inquiries, a re-ordering that would have consequences for a great many literatures and [[disciplines]].<ref>Milman Parry. Studies in the epic technique of oral verse-making. I: Homer and Homeric style. ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Vol. 41 (1930), pp. 118ff.</ref>
 
Cerita digunakan untuk melestarikan dan meneruskan baik sejarah suku maupun sejarah lingkungan, yang sering kali terkait erat.<ref name=":1"/> Tradisi lisan penduduk asli di Pacific Northwest, misalnya, menggambarkan bencana alam seperti gempa bumi dan tsunami. Berbagai budaya dari Pulau Vancouver dan Washington memiliki cerita yang menggambarkan pergulatan fisik antara Thunderbird dan Paus.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Ludwin|first=Ruth|last2=Smits|first2=Gregory|date=2007|title=Folklore and earthquakes: Native American oral traditions from Cascadia compared with written traditions from Japan|url=|journal=Geological Society of London, Special Publications|volume=273|pages=67–94|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2007.273.01.07}}</ref> Salah satu kisah tersebut menceritakan tentang Thunderbird, yang dapat menciptakan guntur hanya dengan menggerakkan bulu, menusuk daging Paus dengan cakar, menyebabkan Paus menyelam ke dasar laut, membawa serta Thunderbird bersamanya. Gambaran lainnya menggambarkan Thunderbird mengangkat Paus dari Bumi lalu menjatuhkannya kembali. Kesamaan wilayah dalam tema dan karakter menunjukkan bahwa cerita-cerita ini menggambarkan pengalaman hidup dari gempa bumi dan banjir dalam ingatan kesukuan.<ref name=":22" /> Menurut salah satu cerita dari [[Suquamish | Suquamish Tribe]], [[Agate Pass]] tercipta ketika gempa bumi memperluas saluran sebagai akibat dari pertempuran bawah air antara ular dan burung. Cerita lain di wilayah ini menggambarkan pembentukan lembah glasial dan morain serta terjadinya tanah longsor, dengan cerita yang digunakan setidaknya dalam satu kasus untuk mengidentifikasi dan menentukan tanggal gempa bumi yang terjadi pada tahun 900 dan 1700 Masehi.<ref name=":22" /> Contoh lebih lanjut termasuk [[Arikara]] cerita asal kemunculan dari "dunia bawah" kegelapan yang terus-menerus, yang mungkin mewakili ingatan akan kehidupan di Lingkaran Arktik selama zaman es terakhir, dan cerita yang melibatkan "celah yang dalam", yang mungkin merujuk ke Grand Canyon.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Echo-Hawk|first=Roger|date=Spring 2000|title=Ancient History in the New World: Integrating Oral Traditions and the Archaeological Record in Deep Time|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/8d92f3fbaf380d6856dc935bb225b7e148487de4|journal=American Antiquity|volume=65|issue=2|pages=267–290|doi=10.2307/2694059|jstor=2694059}}</ref> Terlepas dari contoh kesepakatan antara catatan geologi dan arkeologi di satu sisi dan catatan lisan Asli di sisi lain, beberapa ahli telah memperingatkan validitas historis tradisi lisan karena kerentanan mereka terhadap perubahan detail dari waktu ke waktu dan kurangnya tanggal yang tepat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mason|first=Ronald J.|date=2000|title=Archaeology and Native North American Oral Traditions|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2000-04_65_2/page/239|journal=American Antiquity|volume=65|issue=2|pages=239–266|doi=10.2307/2694058|issn=0002-7316|jstor=2694058}}</ref> [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] menganggap tradisi lisan sebagai sumber bukti yang layak untuk membangun afiliasi antara objek budaya dan Bangsa Pribumi.<ref name=":32" />
Parry's work under [[Antoine Meillet]] at the [[Sorbonne]] led to his crucial insight into the "formula," which he originally defined as "a group of words which is regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea."<ref>Adam Parry (ed.). ''The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971, p. 272.</ref> In Homeric verse, for example, phrases like ''eos rhododaktylos'' ("rosy fingered dawn") or ''oinops pontos'' ("winedark sea") occupy a certain metrical pattern that fits, in modular fashion, into the six-colon Greek hexameter, and aids the ''aioidos'' or bard in extempore composition. Moreover, phrases of this type would be subject to internal substitutions and adaptations, permitting flexibility in response to narrative and grammatical needs: ''podas okus Achilleus'' ("swift footed Achilles") is metrically equivalent to ''koruthaiolos Hektor'' ("glancing-helmed Hektor"). Parry and Lord observed that the same phenomenon was apparent in the Old English alliterative line:
 
== Proses Penerusan Pesan ==
:''Hrothgar mathelode helm Scildinga'' ("Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scildings")
Kisah-kisah yang sering dituturkan dalam tradisi lisan dapat berbentuk berita maupun opini, {{Sfn|Vansina|1985|p=3|Ps="Nevertheless, among the messages that are repeated a historian will recognize two major groups: communication that presents "news" and communication which represents an "interpretation" of existing situations."}} yang menginformasikan peristiwa-peristiwa di masa lalu atau kejadian-kejadian tak terduga yang pernah dialami oleh para leluhur seperti mendapatkan mimpi, penglihatan, atau ilham dari ilahi. Dalam peradaban manusia saat sebelum mengenal tulisan, untuk mendapatkan informasi yang akurat, penyampaian berita secara lisan menjadi perhatian khusus, tujuannya adalah untuk melestarikan dan menyebarkan tradisi mereka kepada generasi-generasi yang akan datang. Di setiap adat maupun negara memiliki ciri khas dan cara-cara yang berbeda dalam proses penuturannya. Beberapa diantaranya lewat pengajaran langsung, sanksi ritual, komunimasi esoterik, dan terkadang melibatkan benda-benda [[mnemonik]].{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=31|Ps="This may be done either by training people to whom the tradition is then entrusted, or by exercising some form of control over each recital of the tradition."}}{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=31|Ps="accurate transmission is more likely if a tradition is not public property, but forms the esoteric knowledge of a special group. The employment of mnemonic devices may also contribute towards ensuring accurate repetition of traditions."}}{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=39|Ps="A society may have certain institutions for regulating the method of transmission of certain traditions in such a way as to preserve the original testimony of the observer as faithfully as possible."}}
:''Beowulf mathelode bearn Ecgtheowes'' ("Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow")
 
Para leluhur ataupun tokoh adat menyampaikan tradisi lisan kepada anak-anak dengan memberikan pengajaran melalui sekolah-sekolah khusus dengan segala instrumen pembelajarannya mereka jadikan sangat sakral. Bukti adanya tradisi seperti ini ditemukan di [[Kepulauan Marquesas]], [[Polinesia]].{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=32|Ps="The outstanding feature of schools of this kind in Polynesia was that the instruction, and everything to do with it-down to the clothes worn by the pupils-was consecrated, and became taboo, because of the nature of what was taught."}} Di [[Rwanda]], para leluhur yang menguasai silsilah atau nasab kerajaan, penyair dan para penulis kronik memegang kendali terhadap penyebaran kisah-kisah kepada generasi penerusnya, yang mana setiap jabatan memiliki nama dan tugas yang berbeda seperti ''Abacurabwenge'' (ahli silsilah), bertugas mengingat daftar riwayat keturunan raja maupun ratu; ''Abateekerezi'' (ahli kronik), bertugas mengingat peristiwa terpenting dari berbagai pemerintahan; dan ''Abiru'', bertugas menjaga rahasia kerajaan. Mereka memberikan sanksi dan hukuman pada setiap penutur yang salah mengucapkan kata-kata ketika tradisi sedang berlangsung. Di [[Selandia Baru]] penyebab kesalahan tersebut akan diberikan sanksi berat hingga hukuman mati, dan bagi sebagian kalangan masyarakat akan menerima hukum sosial hingga bahan ejekan apabila tidak bisa bertutur tentang sejarah nenek moyang mereka.{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=34|Ps="Ridicule also comes into play. Someone who does not know the traditions of his group is often the laughing-stock of the other members. This is what happens among the Kuba if someone does not know the clan slogan."}}
and in the ''junacki deseterac'' (heroic [[decasyllable]]) of the demonstrably oral poetry of the Serbs:
 
Di sebagian wilayah, tradisi lisan hanya berlaku bagi orang-orang tertentu dengan bahasa khusus yang tidak semua masyarakat luas mampu menafsirkannya dengan fasih. Cara Seperti ini disebut dengan tradisi [[Esoteris Esoterik|esoterik]]. Salah satu peninggalan tradisi pada pada kerajaan Inca menerangkan mereka memiliki beberapa cara yang berbeda dalam menuturkan kisah secara lisan. Kisah-kisah rahasia secara umum diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah khusus bangsawan oleh para ''Amauta'' (ahli sejarah), kisah-kisah yang populer diekspresikan dalam bentuk puisi hasil bentukan petinggi kerajaan dan ditampilkan di depan umum, kisah-kisah tentang tokoh terkenal memiliki kajian yang berbeda yang dibawakan oleh ''Quipumaoc'', dan untuk kisah-kisah yang berhubungan dengan kerajaan terdapat kajian yang berbeda juga, yang kesemuanya masih diatir oleh kerajaan.{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=36|Ps="In the Inca kingdom all forms of history were strictly censored"}} {{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=36|Ps="..and that all further facts concerning his reign should be omitted."}}
:''a besjedi od Orasca Tale'' ("But spoke of Orashatz Tale")
:''a besjedi Mujagin Halile'' ("But spoke Mujo's Halil")
 
Untuk membantu mengingat tradisi, para leluhur juga memanfaatkan benda-benda material yang dipercaya memiliki makna sejarah tertentu (mnemonik) yang diwariskan dari satu generasi ke generasi berikutnya. Contoh penggunaan benda mnemonik yang ditemukan di [[Peru]] adalah ''Quipu'' (untaian tali dengan warna dan panjang yang berbeda yang diikatkan menjadi satu dan dikaitkan ke kepala). ''Quipu'' dapat memberikan informasi tentang lamanya Masa jabatan seorang raja beserta sifat, kepribadian, dan model kepemimpinannya. Penggunaan alat mnemonik lainnya yang juga banyak ditemukan seperti di Polinesia berupa tongkat yang dibuat sayatan pada bagian atasnya. Di Kerajaan [[Bono Mansu]], [[Afrika Barat]], berupa pot yang disebut dengan ''Kudou'' ditempatkan di atas kuil di dekat makam raja sebagai penanda lamanya raja berkuasa.{{Sfn|Vansina|1972|p=38|Ps="In the Empire of Bono-Mansu, a pot called a kuduo was placed in a special temple at the death of each ruler. Every year, a nugget of gold was placed in the pot of the reigning king, so that when he died the number of years he had reigned could be established with precision."}}
In Parry's view, formulas were not individual and idiosyncratic devices of particular artists, but the shared inheritance of a tradition of singers. They were easily remembered, making it possible for the singer to execute an [[improvisation]]al [[musical composition|composition]]-in-performance. A later scholar commented on the potential for Parry's concept to be seen as disparaging of Homeric genius: "The meaning of the Greek term 'rhapsodize', ''rhapsoidein'', 'to stitch song together' could then be taken in a negative sense: Homer stitched together pre-fabricated parts."<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word''. Routledge, London & New York, 1982, 2002; p. 22.</ref>
 
== Keunggulan Tradisi Lisan ==
The idea indeed met with immediate resistance,<ref name="autogenerated3">Foley, John Miles. The Theory of Oral Composition. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, pp. 57 ff.</ref> because it seemed to make the fount of [[Western literature|Western literary]] eloquence the slave of a system of [[cliché]]s, but it accounted for such otherwise inexplicable features of the Homeric poems as gross [[anachronisms]] (revealed by advances in [[history|historical]] and [[archaeology|archaeological]] knowledge), the presence of incompatible [[dialects]], and the deployment of locally unsuitable [[epithet]]s ("blameless [[Aegistheus|Aegisthos]]" for the murderer of [[Agamemnon]], or the almost comic use of "swift-footed [[Achilles]]" for the hero in conspicuously sedentary moments).<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>Foley, John Miles. Immanent Art. From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic." Bloomington: IUP, 1991. 3, 52</ref>
Selama ribuan tahun sebelum penemuan tulisan, yang merupakan fenomena terkini dalam sejarah umat manusia, tradisi lisan berfungsi sebagai satu-satunya alat komunikasi yang tersedia untuk membentuk dan memelihara masyarakat dan institusi mereka. Selain itu, banyak penelitian — yang dilakukan di enam benua — telah menggambarkan bahwa tradisi lisan tetap menjadi mode komunikasi yang dominan di abad ke-21, meskipun tingkat melek huruf meningkat.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oral tradition {{!}} communication|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/oral-tradition|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-09-11}}</ref>
 
[[Image:Papa1999.bJPG.jpg|thumb|[[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] [[Griot]] Al-Haji [[Papa Susso]] performing songs from the oral tradition of the [[Gambia]] on the [[kora]]]]
Parry was appointed to a junior professorship at [[Harvard]], and during this time became aware of living oral traditions in the [[Balkan]] region. In two field expeditions with his young assistant [[Albert Lord]] (1912-1991) he would record thousands of songs on [[aluminum disk]]s.<ref>[http://chs119.harvard.edu/mpc/ Milman Parry On-Line Collection]</ref> The collection would provide the basis for an empirical documentation of the dynamics of composition of metrical narrative in traditional oral performance.<ref>The work is reviewed and analyzed in Lord, Albert, "The Singer of Tales." Cambridge: Harvard UP 1960.</ref> This analysis included the patterns and types of variation at [[lexical]] and other levels which would yield a [[structuralism|structural]] account of a work's [[multiformity]]. This phenomenon could only be accounted for in standard literary [[methodology]] by concepts of “corruption” and “distortion” of a pristine, original “ur-text” or hypothetical “lost Q" ("Quelle", German for "source"), hypothesized via [[stemmatology]]. Thus the work of Parry and Lord reduced the prominence of the [[historic-geographic method]] in [[folkloristics]].<ref>Foley, John Miles. Immanent Art. From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic." Bloomington: IUP, 1991. 100, 100n11, 102, 119</ref>
 
Parry died in 1935. His work was posthumously published by his son [[Adam Parry]] as ''The Making of Homeric Verse'' (Oxford: Clarendon, 1971). Lord, however, had meanwhile published ''[[The Singer of Tales]]'' (1960)<ref>Albert B. Lord. ''[[The Singer of Tales]]''. Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature, 24. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1981</ref>, a work which summarized both Parry's response to the Homeric Question, and the joint work he had done with Parry in the Balkans. The [[Parry/Lord thesis|Parry-Lord]] work exercised great influence on other scholars, notably [[Francis P. Magoun]], whose application of their model to [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] traditions demonstrated the explicative and problem-solving power of the theory<ref>Francis P. Magoun, Jr. The oral-formulaic character of Anglo-Saxon narrative poetry. ''[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]]'' Vol. 28 (1953), pp. 446-67.</ref>&nbsp;– a process that would be repeated by other scholars in numerous independent traditions (see below).
-->
 
=== Walter Ong ===
<!--
In a separate development, the [[media theory|media theorist]] [[Marshall McLuhan]] (1911-1980) would begin to focus attention on the ways that [[communication|communicative]] [[Mass media|media]] shape the nature of the content conveyed.<ref>See for example Marshall McLuhan, ''The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man''. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1962.</ref> He would serve as mentor to the [[Jesuit]], [[Walter Ong]] (1912-2003), whose interests in [[cultural history]], [[psychology]] and [[rhetoric]] would result in ''Orality and Literacy'' (Methuen, 1980) and the important but less-known ''Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality and Consciousness'' (Cornell, 1981)<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Fighting for Life: Context, Sexuality and Consciousness''. Cornell University Press, Ithaca & London, 1981.</ref> These two works articulated the contrasts between cultures defined by [[Orality#Primary orality|primary orality]], writing, print, and the [[secondary orality]] of the electronic age.<ref name="autogenerated3" />
 
:{|style="border:1px; border: thin solid white; background-color:#f6f6FF; margin:20px;" cellpadding="10"
|-
| I style the orality of a culture totally untouched by any knowledge of writing or print, 'primary orality'. It is 'primary' by contrast with the 'secondary orality' of present-day high technology culture, in which a new orality is sustained by telephone, radio, television and other electronic devices that depend for their existence and functioning on writing and print. Today primary culture in the strict sense hardly exists, since every culture knows of writing and has some experience of its effects. Still, to varying degrees many cultures and sub-cultures, even in a high-technology ambiance, preserve much of the mind-set of primary orality.<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Orality and Literacy'', p. 11. </ref>
|}
 
Ong's works also made possible an integrated theory of oral tradition which accounted for both production of content (the chief concern of Parry-Lord theory) and its reception.<ref name="autogenerated3" /> This approach, like McLuhan's, kept the field open not just to the study of aesthetic culture but to the way physical and behavioral artifacts of oral societies are used to store, manage and transmit knowledge, so that oral tradition provides methods for investigation of cultural differences, other than the purely verbal, between oral and literate societies.
 
The most-often studied section of ''Orality and Literacy'' concerns the “[[psychodynamics]] of orality” This chapter seeks to define the fundamental characteristics of 'primary' orality and summarizes a series of descriptors (including but not limited to verbal aspects of culture) which might be used to index the relative orality or literacy of a given text or society.<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word'', pp. 31-76.</ref>
-->
 
=== John Miles Foley ===
<!--
In advance of Ong’s synthesis, [[John Miles Foley]], who studied with [[Robert Creed]] (who had in turn studied with Magoun), began a series of papers based on his own fieldwork on South Slavic oral genres, emphasizing the dynamics of performers and audiences. <ref>Foley, John Miles. The Theory of Oral Composition. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, p 76.</ref> Foley effectively consolidated oral tradition as an academic field[http://illumination.missouri.edu/spr05/fol1.htm] when he compiled ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research'' in 1985. The bibliography gives a summary of the progress scholars made in evaluating the oral tradition up to that point, and includes a list of all relevant scholarly articles relating to the theory of [[Oral-Formulaic Composition]]. He also both established both the journal ''Oral Tradition'' and founded the ''Center for Studies in Oral Tradition'' (1986) at the [[University of Missouri–Columbia]]. Foley developed Oral Theory beyond the somewhat mechanistic notions presented in earlier versions of Oral-Formulaic Theory, by extending Ong's interest in cultural features of oral societies beyond the verbal, by drawing attention to the agency of the [[bard]] and by describing how oral traditions bear meaning.
 
The bibliography would establish a clear underlying methodology which accounted for the findings of scholars working in the separate [[Linguistics]] fields (primarily [[Ancient Greek]], Anglo-Saxon and Serbo-Croatian). Perhaps more importantly, it would stimulate conversation among these specialties, so that a network of independent but allied investigations and investigators could be established.<ref>Foley, John Miles. "Oral Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography." NY: Garland, 1985.The Theory of Oral Composition. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, pp. 64-66.</ref>
 
Foley’s key works include ''The Theory of Oral Composition'' (1988);<ref>John Miles Foley. ''The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology''. Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1988.</ref> ''Immanent Art'' (1991); ''Traditional Oral Epic: The Odyssey, Beowulf and the Serbo-Croatian Return-Song'' (1993); ''The Singer of Tales in Performance'' (1995); ''Teaching Oral Traditions'' (1998); ''How to Read an Oral Poem'' (2002). His [http://www.pathwaysproject.org/pathways/show/HomePage Pathways Project] (2006-) draws parallels between the media dynamics of oral traditions and the [[Internet]].
-->
 
=== Penerimaan dan elaborasi lanjutan ===
<!--
The theory of oral tradition would undergo elaboration and development as it grew in acceptance.<ref>Foley, John Miles. "Oral Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography." NY: Garland, 1985.The Theory of Oral Composition. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, p. 70</ref> While the number of formulas documented for various traditions proliferated,<ref>A. Orchard, 'Oral Tradition', Reading Old English Texts, ed. K O'Brien O'Keeffe ( Cambridge, 1997), pp. 101-23 </ref> the concept of the formula remained lexically-bound. However, numerous innovations appeared, such as the “formulaic system”<ref>Fry, Donald K. “Old English Formulas and Systems” English Studies 48(1967):193-204. responds to what was known, pejoratively, in Greek studies as the “hard Parryist” position, in which the formula was defined in terms of verbatim lexical repetition (see Rosenmyer, Thomas G. “The Formula in Early Greek Poetry” Arion4(1965):295-311). Fry’s model proposes underlying generative templates which provide for variation and even artistic creativity within the constraints of strict metrical requirements and extempore composition-in-performance</ref> with structural “substitution slots” for [[syntax|syntactic]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] and [[narrative]] necessity (as well as for artistic invention).<ref>Davis, Adam Brooke “Verba volent, scripta manent: Oral Tradition and the Non-Narrative Genres of Old English Poetry.” Diss. Univ. of Missouri at Columbia. DAI 52A (1991), 2137 pp. 202, 205</ref> Sophisticated models such as Foley’s “word-type placement rules” followed. <ref>Foley, John Miles. Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic. Bloomington:IUP, 1991. 30, 31, 202n22, 207 n36, 211n43 </ref>Higher levels of formulaic composition were defined over the years, such as “[[ring composition]],”<ref>Foley, John Miles. "The Singer of Tales in Performance. Bloomington: IUP, 1995. 55, 60, 89 108, 122n40</ref> “responsion”<ref>Olsen, Alexandra Hennessey. "Oral -Formulaic Research in Old English Studies:II" "Oral Tradition" 3:1-2 (1988) 138-90, p. 165) Olsen cites Foley's "Hybrid Prosody and Old English Half-Lines in Neophilologus 64:284-89 (1980).</ref> and the "[[type-scene]]" (also called a "theme" or "typical scene"<ref>Foley, John Miles. "The Singer of Tales in Performance. Bloomington: IUP, 1995. 2, 7, 8n15, 17 et passim.</ref>). Examples include the "Beasts of Battle" <ref> Magoun, Francis P. "The Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry." Speculum 28 (1953): 446-67</ref> and the "Cliffs of Death"<ref>Fry, Donald K. "The Cliff of Death in Old English Poetry." In Comparative Research in Oral Traditions: A Memorial for Milman Parry, ed. John Miles Foley. Columbus: Slavica, 1987, 213-34.</ref> Some of these characteristic patterns of narrative details, (like “the arming sequence;”<ref>Zumthor, Paul. “The Text and the Voice.” Transl. Marilyn C. Englehardt. New Literary History 16(1984):67-92</ref> “the hero on the beach;”<ref>D. K. Crowne, "The Hero on the Beach: An Example of Composition by Theme in Anglo-Saxon Poetry," Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, 61 (1960), 371.</ref> “the traveler recognizes his goal”<ref>Clark, George. “The Traveller Recognizes His Goal.” Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 64 (1965):645-59. </ref> would show evidence of global distribution.<ref>Armstrong, James I. ''The Arming Motif in the Iliad''. The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 79, No. 4. (1958), pp. 337-354.</ref>
 
At the same time, the fairly rigid division between oral and literate was replaced by recognition of transitional and compartmentalized texts and societies, including models of [[diglossia]] ([[Brian Stock]]<ref>Stock, Brian. “The Implications of Literacy. Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries” (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983)</ref> [[Franz Bäuml]],<ref>Bäuml, Franz H. "Varieties and Consequences of Medieval Literacy and Illiteracy", in Speculum, Vol. 55, No. 2 (1980), pp.243-244. </ref> and [[Eric Havelock]])<ref>Havelock, Eric Alfred. Preface to Plato. Vol. 1 A History of the Greek Mind, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA: 1963.</ref>. Perhaps most importantly, the terms and concepts of “[[orality]]” and “[[literacy]]” came to be replaced with the more useful and apt “[[traditionality]]” and “[[textuality]].”<ref name="autogenerated2">Davis, Adam Brooke. “Agon and Gnomon: Forms and Functions of the Anglo-Saxon Riddles" in De Gustibus: Essays for Alain Renoir. Ed John Miles Foley. NY: Garland, 1992 110-150 </ref> Very large units would be defined ([[The Indo-European Return Song]])<ref>Foley, John Miles. “Immanent Art” Bloomington:IUP, 1991. 15, 18, 20-21, 34, 45, 63-64, 64n6, 64-68,, 74n23, 75, 76, 77n28, 78, 80, 82, 82n38, 83, 87-91, 92, 93, 94, 102, 103, 104n18, 105, 109, 110n32 </ref> and areas outside of [[epic poetry|military epic]] would come under investigation: women’s song,<ref>Weigle, Marta. “Women’s Expressive Forms” in Foley, John Miles, ed. “Teaching Oral Traditions” NY:MLA 1998. pp. 298-</ref> [[riddle]]s.”<ref name="autogenerated2" /> and other genres.
 
The methodology of oral tradition now conditions a large variety of studies, not only in [[folklore]], [[literature]] and [[literacy]], but in [[philosophy]],<ref>Kevin Robb. "Greek Oral Memory and the Origins of Philosophy." The Personaist: An International Review of Philosophy, 51:5-45.;
A study of the AG oral mentality that assumes (1) the existence of composition and thinking that took shape under the aegis of oral patterns, (2) the educational apparatus as an oral system, and (3) the origins of philosophy as we know it in the abstract intellectual reaction against the oral mentality. The opening section on historical background covers developments in archaeology and textual criticism (including Parry's work) since the late nineteenth century, with descriptions of and comments on formulaic and thematic structure. In "The Technique of the Oral Poet" (14-22), he sketches both a synchronic picture of the singer weaving his narrative and a diachronic view of the tradition developing over time. In the third part, on the psychology of performance, he discusses "the prevalence of rhythmic speech over prose; the prevalence of the event' over the abstraction'; and the prevalence of the paratactic arrangement of parts... over alternative schema possible in other styles" (23). In sympathy with Havelock (1963), he interprets Plato's reaction against the poets as one against the oral mentality and its educative process.</ref> [[communication theory]],<ref>Review: Communication Studies as American Studies Daniel Czitrom American Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Dec., 1990), pp. 678-683</ref> [[Semiotics]],<ref>Nimis, Stephen A. Narrative Semiotics in the Epic Tradition. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 1988</ref> and including a very broad and continually expanding variety of languages and ethnic groups,[http://www.gwu.edu/~e73afram/ag-am-mp.html][http://wsupress.wayne.edu/literature/armenian/hacikyanhal1.htm][http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1985_August/ai_3877977][http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/literature/article_view?article_id=lico_articles_bpl376][http://www.sacbf.org.za/2004%20papers/Sunday%20Okoh.rtf][http://www.usp.nus.edu.sg/post/poldiscourse/casablanca/sarhrouny1.html][http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/SCL/bin/get.cgi?directory=vol18_2/&filename=McGrath.htm], and perhaps most conspicuously in [[biblical studies]][http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/1i/3_culley.pdf], in which [[Werner Kelber]] has been especially prominent.[http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/oral_tradition/v018/18.1kelber.html]; the annual bibliography is indexed by 100 areas, most of which are ethnolinguistic divisions.[http://oraltradition.org/bibliography/areas]
 
Present developments explore the implications of the theory for [[rhetoric]]<ref>Boni, Stefano. Contents and contexts : the rhetoric of oral traditions in the oman of Sefwi Wiawso, Ghana. Africa. 70 (4) 2000, pages 568-594. London</ref> and [[composition (language)|composition]],<ref>Miller, Susan, Rescuing the Subject. A Critical Introduction to Rhetoric and the Writer. Southern Illinois University Press, 2004</ref> [[interpersonal communication]],<ref>Minton, John. The Reverend Lamar Roberts and the Mediation of Oral Tradition The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 108, No. 427 (Winter, 1995), pp. 3-37 </ref> [[cross-cultural communication]],[http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:iOZaD11-Ix0J:www.oise.utoronto.ca/CASAE/cnf2002/2002_Papers/simpkins2002w.pdf+%22oral+tradition%22+%22intercultural+communication%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=4&gl=us] [[postcolonial studies]],<ref>“Culture Education” and the Challenge of Globalization in Modern Nigeria by Ademola Omobewaji Dasylva
This paper has to do with the challenges of globalization in modern Nigeria and the process of “culture education,” a terminology used to emphasize the peculiar means and methods of instruction by which a society imparts its body of values and mores in the pursuance and attainment of the society’s collective vision, aspirations, and goals. Within this framework, this paper examines the legacies of imperialism and colonization within the Nigerian educational system––particularly in reference to the teaching of folklore and oral tradition––including the destruction of indigenous knowledge systems and the continuing lack of adequate resources in African universities. The paper concludes by offering suggestions for a more fully synthesized indigenous and formal Nigerian educational system as a method of addressing postcolonial rupture. [http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/21ii/Dasylva.pdf] Oral Tradition 21/2 (2006):325-41.</ref> [[rural community development]],[http://www.uaf.edu/iac/RHS/about.html] [[popular culture]]<ref>Skidmore, Thomas E. “Black Into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought” New York: Oxford University Press, 1974 p. 89 </ref> and [[film studies]],[http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=382&Itemid=46] and many other areas. The most significant areas of theoretical development at present may be the construction of systematic [[hermeneutics]]<ref>A. Loubser, —Shembe Preaching: A Study in Oral Hermeneutics,“ in African Independent Churches. Today, ed. M. C. Kitshoff (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996</ref><ref>Kelber, Werner H. “The Oral and the Written Gospel: The Hermeneutics of Writing and Speaking in the Synoptic Tradition” Philadelphia: Fortress P 1983.</ref><ref>Swearingen, C. Jan. Oral Hermeneutics during the Transition to Literacy: The Contemporary Debate. Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 1, No. 2, The Dialectic of Oral and Literary Hermeneutics (May, 1986), pp. 138-156 </ref> and [[aesthetics]]<ref>Foley, John Miles. The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology. Bloomington: IUP, 1988. 55, 64, 66, 72, 74, 77, 80, 97, 105, 110-111, 129n20,; artistic cp to mechanistic, 21, 25, 38, 58, 63-64, 65, 104, 118-119n20, 120-121n16, 124n31, 125n53, oral aesthetic cp to literate aestetics, 35, 58, 110-11, 121n26.</ref><ref>Foley, John Miles. Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic. Bloomington:IUP, 1991. 245</ref> specific to oral traditions.
-->
 
== Kritik dan debat ==
<!--
[[File:Helsinki-Folk-singer-statue-1750.JPG|thumb|The legendary Finnish storyteller [[Väinämöinen]] with his [[kantele]]]]
The theory of oral tradition encountered early resistance from scholars who perceived it as potentially supporting either one side or another in the controversy between what were known as [[Homeric question|“unitarians” and “analysts”]]&nbsp;– that is, scholars who believed Homer to have been a single, historical figure, and those who saw him as a conceptual “author function,” a convenient name to assign to what was essentially a repertoire of traditional narrative. <ref> Frederick M. Combellack, “Milman Parry and Homeric Artistry” Comparative Literature, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer, 1959), pp. 193-208 . p. 194</ref> A much more general dismissal of the theory and its implications simply described it as "unprovable"<ref>Rutherford, R.B. Homer: Odyssey Books XIX & XX,, Cambridge UP 1992 remarks on oral-formulaic diction, pp. 47-49</ref> Some scholars, mainly outside the field of oral tradition, <ref>Botstein, Leon. “Hearing Is Seeing: Thoughts on the History of Music and the Imagination.” The Musical Quarterly 1995 79(4):581-89</ref><ref>http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_folklore_research/v043/43.3oring.html Elliot Oring cites Bruchac, Joe Storytelling: Oral History or Game of 'Telephone'?" American Folklore Society Newsletter 19/2:3–4.</ref><ref>http://christopherbutler.wordpress.com/2006/04/28/scriptural-transmission-inspiration-and-inerrancy/ Christopher Butler cites Bart Ehrman, ‘Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why,’</ref><ref>[http://www.valdosta.edu/folkwriting/pdf/chapter4.PDF chapter4.DOC]</ref> represent (either dismissively or with approval) this body of theoretical work as reducing the great [[Epic poetry|epics]] to children’s party games like “[[telephone (game)|telephone]]” or “[[Chinese whispers]]”. While games provide amusement by showing how messages distort content via uncontextualized transmission, Parry’s supporters argue that the theory of oral tradition reveals how oral methods optimized the [[signal-to-noise ratio]] and thus improved the quality, stability and [[integrity]] of content transmission. <ref>Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. Great Britain: Bantam, 2006 p. 118 -- Dawkins contradicts this view, however, on p. 227)</ref>
 
There were disputes concerning particular findings of the theory. For example, those trying to support or refute Crowne's hypothesis found the "Hero on the Beach" formula in numerous Old English poems. It was also discovered in other works of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] origin, [[Middle English poetry]], and even an [[Iceland]]ic prose [[saga]]. J.A. Dane, in an article<ref>Dane, J.A. “Finnsburh and Iliad IX: A Greek Survival of the Medieval Germanic Oral-Formulaic Theme The Hero on the Beach.” Neophilologus 66:443-449 </ref> characterized as "polemics without rigor"<ref>Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography, (NY: Garland Publishing, 1985, p. 200</ref> claimed that the appearance of the theme in [[Ancient Greek]] poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet."
 
Within Homeric studies specifically, Lord's ''[[The Singer of Tales]]'', which focused on problems and questions that arise in conjunction with applying oral-formulaic theory to problematic texts such as the ''[[Iliad]]'', ''[[Odyssey]]'', and even ''[[Beowulf]]'', influenced nearly all of the articles written on [[Homer]] and oral-formulaic composition thereafter. However, in response to Lord, Geoffrey Kirk published "The Songs of Homer," questioning Lord's extension of the oral-formulaic nature of Serbian and Croatian literature (the area from which the theory was first developed) to Homeric epic. Kirk argues that Homeric poems differ from those traditions in their "metrical strictness," "formular system[s]", and creativity. In other words, Kirk argued that Homeric poems were recited under a system that gave the reciter much more freedom to choose words and passages to get to the same end than the Serbo-Croatian poet, who was merely "reproductive".<ref>Kirk, Geoffrey S. ''The Songs of Homer.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962. pp88 - 91.</ref><ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. p. 35. </ref> Shortly thereafter, Eric Havelock's ''Preface to Plato'' revolutionized how scholars looked at Homeric epic by arguing not only that it was the product of an oral tradition, but also that the oral-formulas contained therein served as a way for ancient Greeks to preserve cultural knowledge across many different generations.<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. p. 36. </ref> [[Adam Parry]], in his 1966 work "Have we Homer's ''Iliad''?", theorized the existence of the most fully developed oral poet to his time, a person who could (at his discretion) creatively and intellectually create nuanced characters in the context of the accepted, traditional story. In fact, he discounted the Serbo-Croatian tradition to an "unfortunate" extent, choosing to elevate the Greek model of oral-tradition above all others.<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. pp. 36, 505. </ref><ref>Parry, Adam. "Have we Homer's ''Iliad''?"''Yale Classical Studies.''20 (1966), pp.. 177-216.</ref> Lord reacted to Kirk's and Parry's essays with "Homer as Oral Poet," published in 1968, which reaffirmed Lord's belief in the relevance of Yugoslav poetry and its similarities to Homer and downplayed the intellectual and literary role of the reciters of Homeric epic.<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. pp. 40, 406. </ref>
 
Many of the criticisms of the theory have been absorbed into the evolving field as useful refinements and modifications. For example, in what Foley called a "pivotal" contribution, [[Larry Benson]] introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes<ref> Foley, John M. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. 1985. p. 42.; Foley cites "The Literary Character of Anglo-Saxon Formulaic Poetry" Publications of the Modern Language Association 81 (1966):, 334-41</ref> A number of individual scholars in many areas continue to have misgivings about the applicability of the theory or the aptness of the South Slavic comparison,<ref>George E. Dimock. "From Homer to Novi Pazar and B ack." Arion, 2, iv:40-57. Reacts against the Parry-Lord hypothesis of an oral Homer, claiming that, although Lord demonstrated that the oral poet thinks in verse and offered many explanations of the various facets of the Homeric Question by recour se to the Yugoslav analogy, the difference between Homer and other, literate poets is one of degree rather than kind. Wants to rescue Homer's art from what he sees as the dangers inherent in the oral theory model. </ref> and particularly what they regard as its implications for the creativity which may legitimately be attributed to the individual artist.<ref>Perhaps the most prominent and steadfast opponent of oral traditional theory on these grounds was Arthur Brodeur, in, e.g., The Art of Beowulf. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3rd printing 1969;
"A Study of Diction and Style in Three Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poems." In Nordica et Anglica. Ed. Allan H. Orrick. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 97-114;
"Beowulf: One Poem or Three?" In Medieval Literature and Folklore Studies in Honor of Francis Lee Utley. Ed. Jerome Mandel and Bruce A. Rosenberg. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 3-26. </ref> However, at present, there seems to be little systematic or theoretically coordinated challenge to the fundamental tenets of the theory; as Foley put it, ""there have been numerous suggestions for revisions or modifications of the theory, but the majority of controversies have generated further understanding.<ref>Foley, John Miles. The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology. Bloomington:IUP, 1988." p.93</ref>
-->
 
== Lihat pula ==
Baris 109 ⟶ 57:
 
== Kepustakaan ==
{{refbegin|1}}
*Marcello Sorce Keller, "Folk Music in Trentino: Oral Transmission and the Use of Vernacular Languages", ''Ethnomusicology'', XXVIII(1984), no. 1, 75-89.
* {{cite book|title=Oral Tradition A Study In Historical Methodology|last=Vansina|first=Jan|publisher=Routledge and Megan Paul|year=1972|isbn=9780202367620|location=London|ref={{sfnref|Vansina
o|1972}}|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|title=Oral Tradition As History|url=https://archive.org/details/oraltraditionash0000vans|last=Vansina|first=Jan|publisher=The University Of Wisconsin Press|year=1985|isbn=9780852550069|location=London|ref={{sfnref|Vansina
o|1985}}|url-status=live}}
* Marcello Sorce Keller, "Folk Music in Trentino: Oral Transmission and the Use of Vernacular Languages", ''Ethnomusicology'', XXVIII(1984), no. 1, 75-89.
 
== Referensi ==
Baris 115 ⟶ 68:
 
== Pranala luar ==
* [http://www.interdisciplines.org/defispublicationweb/papers/6 Kembali ke Tradisi Lisan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051122173607/http://www.interdisciplines.org/defispublicationweb/papers/6 |date=2005-11-22 }}
* [http://www.oraltradition.org Pusat Pengkajian Tradisi Lisan]
* [http://www.chs.harvard.edu/mpc/ Koleksi ''Online''Daring Sastra Lisan Milman Parry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024125752/http://www.chs.harvard.edu/mpc/ |date=2007-10-24 }}
* [http://journal.oraltradition.org/ Jurnal Tradisi Lisan]
* [http://www.oralliterature.org Proyek Sastra Lisan Dunia]
* [http://epress.lib.uh.edu/pr/v2/n1/harnad.2n1 Post-Gutenberg Galaxy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218232032/http://epress.lib.uh.edu/pr/v2/n1/harnad.2n1 |date=2007-12-18 }}
 
{{Authority control}}
{{bahasa-stub}}
 
[[Kategori:Bahasa]]
[[Kategori:Linguistik]]
 
 
[[ar:تاريخ شفهي]]
{{bahasa-stub}}
[[cs:Lidová slovesnost]]
[[de:Mündliche Überlieferung]]
[[en:Oral tradition]]
[[es:Tradición oral]]
[[fr:Tradition orale]]
[[gd:Beul-aithris]]
[[hi:वाचिक परम्परा]]
[[it:Tradizione orale]]
[[ja:口承]]
[[ko:구전]]
[[lv:Mutvārdu tradīcija]]
[[ms:Tradisi lisan]]
[[nn:Munnleg overlevering]]
[[no:Muntlig tradisjon]]
[[pl:Tradycja oralna]]
[[pt:Tradição oral]]
[[simple:Oral tradition]]
[[sv:Muntlig tradition]]
[[th:เรื่องเล่า]]