Liberalisme tertanam

Liberalisme tertanam adalah istilah untuk menyebut sistem ekonomi global dan orientasi politik internasional pada akhir Perang Dunia II sampai 1970-an. Sistem ini diciptakan untuk menopang penyatuan perdagangan bebas dengan hak pemerintah untuk menciptakan kesejahteraan dan mengatur ekonominya demi mengurangi pengangguran. Istilah ini pertama kali digunakan oleh ilmuwan politik Amerika Serikat John Ruggie pada tahun 1982.^[1]

Ilmuwan-ilmuwan arus utama umumnya menyatakan bahwa liberalisme tertanam melibatkan kesepakatan antara dua tujuan yang sama-sama diinginkan tetapi agak saling bertentangan. Tujuan pertama adalah membangkitkan kembali perdagangan bebas. Sebelum Perang Dunia I, perdagangan internasional menempati pangsa besar dalam produk domestik bruto dunia, tetapi tatanan liberal klasik yang menopangnya keteteran akibat perang dan Depresi Besar tahun 1930-an. Tujuan kedua adalah membiarkan pemerintah negara menjalankan program-program kesejahteraan dan ikut campur dalam ekonomi domestiknya untuk menekan angka pengangguran.^[2] Tujuan kedua dianggap tidak pas seiring kembalinya sistem pasar bebas yang pernah ada pada akhir abad ke-19; penyebab utamanya adalah dengan adanya pasar bebas dalam permodalan internasional, investor dapat dengan mudah menarik uang dari negara-negara yang berusaha menerapkan kebijakan intervensionis dan redistribusi.^[3]

Pertentangan ini diselesaikan lewat sistem Bretton Woods yang diluncurkan pada akhir Perang Dunia II. Sistem ini bersifat liberal^[4] dalam artian bertujuan mendirikan sistem perdagangan barang dan jasa internasional yang terbuka dan dibantu oleh nilai tukar semi-tetap. Sistem ini juga bertujuan "menanamkan" kekuatan pasar ke dalam kerangka kerja yang diatur oleh pemerintah negara, dan negara mampu mengendalikan arus modal internasional lewat pengendalian modal. Lembaga-lembaga multilateral global baru dibentuk untuk membantu kerangka kerja ini, dua di antaranya adalah Bank Dunia dan Dana Moneter Internasional.

Ketika Ruggie menciptakan istilah "liberalisme tertanam", ia sedang melanjutkan karya-karya Karl Polanyi. Polanyi memperkenalkan konsep pasar yang "dicabut akarnya" dari masyarakat pada abad ke-19. Polanyi kemudian menulis bahwa "penanaman kembali" pasar akan menjadi tugas utama bagi perancang tatanan dunia pascaperang, dan usulan tersebut diterapkan setelah Konferensi Bretton Woods.^[5] Pada 1950-an dan 1960-an, ekonomi global melaju pesat di bawah liberalisme tertanam. Pertumbuhan ekonomi dunia tumbuh lebih cepat daripada era sebelumnya maupun sesudahnya. Namun demikian, sistem Bretton Woods dibubarkan pada tahun 1970-an.

Lihat pula

Ekonomi politik internasional

Catatan kaki

^ Ruggie, John Gerard. 1982. "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order." International Organization 36(2). The term was later used by many IPE scholars and economic historians, with an early example occurring in Stephen Krasner ed. International Regimes.
^ As WWII was drawing to a close, there was more political support for redistributive policies than ever before. The working classes had increased influence due to the recent expansion of the Electoral franchise, and the wealthier classes were generally more sympathetic, due to the shared experience of participating in the war, and as moderate Keynesian policies were seen as the best measure to stabilise liberal democracy by reducing poverty and unemployment, thus forestalling the rise of extremists such as fascists.
^ This had recently happened to France after the Popular Front came to power in 1936. As Lord Keynes said at the Bretton Woods conference: "Surely in the post-war years there is hardly a country in which we ought not to expect keen political discussions affecting the position of the wealthier classes and the treatment of private property. If so, there will be a number of people constantly taking fright because they think that the degree of leftism in one country looks for the time being likely to be greater than somewhere else." - quoted in Helleiner (1995) p35
^ The word "liberal" has a special meaning here, and should not be confused with the modern US sense of the word, which can be associated with left leaning politics. As is common in most international political economy (IPE) topics, the word in this article generally means supportive of free trade.
^ Though not as a result of Polanyi's direct influence, many others, most notably Lord Keynes, had independently reached parallel conclusions.

Referensi

Karl Polanyi (1944). The Great Transformation. Beacon Press (2002 edition). ISBN 978-0-8070-5643-1.
Cockett,, Richard (1995). Thinking the unthinkable: think-tanks and the economic counter-revolution, 1931-1983. Fontana Press. ISBN 0-00-637586-3.
Helleiner,, Eric (1995). States and the Reemergence of Global Finance: From Bretton Woods to the 1990s. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8333-6.
Kathleen R McNamara (1999). The Currency of Ideas: Monetary Politics in the European Union (Cornell Studies in Political Economy). Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801486025.
Mark Blyth (2002). Great Transformations: Economic Ideas and Institutional Change in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521010527.
Harvey, David (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford University Press.
Eirc Helleiner, Louis W Pauly; et al. (2005). John Ravenhill, ed. Global Political Economy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926584-4.
Bateman, Bradley; Toshiaki, Hirai; Marcuzzo, Maria Cristina (2010). The Return to Keynes. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03538-0.

[1] Ruggie, John Gerard. 1982. "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order." International Organization 36(2). The term was later used by many IPE scholars and economic historians, with an early example occurring in Stephen Krasner ed. International Regimes.

[2] As WWII was drawing to a close, there was more political support for redistributive policies than ever before. The working classes had increased influence due to the recent expansion of the Electoral franchise, and the wealthier classes were generally more sympathetic, due to the shared experience of participating in the war, and as moderate Keynesian policies were seen as the best measure to stabilise liberal democracy by reducing poverty and unemployment, thus forestalling the rise of extremists such as fascists.

[3] This had recently happened to France after the Popular Front came to power in 1936. As Lord Keynes said at the Bretton Woods conference: "Surely in the post-war years there is hardly a country in which we ought not to expect keen political discussions affecting the position of the wealthier classes and the treatment of private property. If so, there will be a number of people constantly taking fright because they think that the degree of leftism in one country looks for the time being likely to be greater than somewhere else." - quoted in Helleiner (1995) p35

[4] The word "liberal" has a special meaning here, and should not be confused with the modern US sense of the word, which can be associated with left leaning politics. As is common in most international political economy (IPE) topics, the word in this article generally means supportive of free trade.

[5] Though not as a result of Polanyi's direct influence, many others, most notably Lord Keynes, had independently reached parallel conclusions.

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