|
=== Land conflict and reforms ===
[[File:Looting of an Armenian village by the Kurds.png|thumb|left|"LootingPenjarahan ofdi ansebuah Armeniandesa villageArmenia byoleh thekelompok KurdsKurdi", pada tahun 1898 oratau 1899]]
ArmeniansOrang-orang inArmenia thedi easternprovinsi-provinsi provincestimur livedKesultanan inUtsmaniyah tinggal dalam suatu masyarakat semi-[[feudal]]feodal conditionsdan andumumnya commonlymenjadi encounteredkorban [[forcedkerja labor]]paksa, [[Taxationpemungutan inpajak theilegal, Ottomandan Empire|illegalkejahatan-kejahatan taxation]],yang andpada unpunishedakhirnya crimestidak againstdiusut themsecara includinghukum robberiesseperti perampokan, murders,pembunuhan anddan sexualpelecehan assaultsseksual.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=60}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=19}} InPada thepertengahan mid-nineteenthabad centuryke-19, thePemerintah OttomanUtsmaniyah governmentmelancarkan instituted thereformasi [[Tanzimat]], ayaitu seriesserangkaian ofreformasi reformsuntuk tomempersamakan equalizestatus theorang-orang statusdi ofbawah OttomanPemerintah subjectsUtsmaniyah regardlessterlepas ofdari religionagama mereka. ThisNamun, goalkebijakan wasini stronglymenuai opposedkecaman bydari Islamiculama-ulama clergyMuslim anddan Muslimsorang-orang Muslim pada umumnya. inSehingga generalmayoritas andkebijakan remainedini mostlytidak theoreticaldiimplementasikan.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=9}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=8}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=26–27}} NeverthelessNamun, somebeberapa IslamistsIslamis believedmengemukakan thatbahwa bydengan seekingmelakukan equalityreformasi untuk kesetaraan, nonorang-Muslimsorang lost the protectionnon-Muslim tokehilangan whichperlindungan theyyang weremereka entitledmiliki underberdasarkan shariasyariat lawIslam.{{sfn|Nichanian|2015|p=247}} TheUndang-Undang [[OttomanAgraria LandUtsmaniyah Code oftahun 1858]] disadvantagedmerugikan Armeniansorang-orang andArmenia manydan nowbanyak haddari tomereka payyang [[doublediharuskan taxation]]membayar bothpajak toberganda Kurdishkepada landlordstuan andtanah theKurdi Ottomandan governmentPemerintah Utsmaniyah.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=19, 53}} ConditionsSituasi ofyang thedialami Armenianoleh peasantryrakyat injelata theArmenia easterndi provincesprovinsi-provinsi regressedtimur frommengalami 1860kemunduran onwardssejak tahun 1860.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=62–63}}
FromSejak thepertengahan mid-nineteenthabad centuryke-19, Armeniansorang-orang facedArmenia large-scalemengalami [[landpenyerobotan usurpation]]lahan astanah asebagai consequenceakibat ofdari theberpindahnya [[sedentarizationmasyarakat ofKurdi Kurdishdari tribes]]gaya andhidup thenomaden arrivalmenjadi ofmenetap. [[muhacir|MuslimSelain refugees]]itu, andpenyerobotan immigrantslahan tanah ini juga disebabkan oleh kedatangan pencari suaka dan imigran Muslim (mainlyterutama orang-orang [[CircassiansSirkasia]]) followingsetelah thePerang [[RussoRusia-Circassian War]]Sirkasia.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=56, 60}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=19, 21}}{{sfn|Göçek|2015|p=123}} In 1876, when Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] came to power, the state began to confiscate Armenian-owned land in the eastern provinces and give it to Muslim immigrants as part of a systematic policy to reduce the Armenian population of these areas that lasted until World War I.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=62, 65}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=55}} These conditions led to a substantial decline in the Armenian highlands' population; 300,000 Armenians left the empire, while others moved to towns.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=271}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=54–56}} Some Armenians joined [[Armenian national liberation movement|revolutionary political parties]], of which the most influential was the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] (ARF), founded in 1890. These parties primarily sought reform within the empire and found only limited support from Ottoman Armenians.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=87–88}}
Russia's decisive victory in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|1877–1878 war]] forced the Ottoman Empire to cede parts of eastern Anatolia, the Balkans, and [[Ottoman Cyprus|Cyprus]].{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=94–95, 105}} Under international pressure at the 1878 [[Congress of Berlin]], the [[Ottoman government]] agreed to carry out reforms and guarantee the physical safety of its Armenian subjects, but there was no enforcement mechanism;{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=95–96}} conditions continued to worsen.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=64}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=97}} The Congress of Berlin marked the emergence of the [[Armenian question]] in international diplomacy as Armenians were for the first time used by the [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|Great Powers]] to interfere in Ottoman politics.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=96}} Although Armenians had been called the "loyal millet" in contrast to Greeks and others who had previously challenged Ottoman rule, the authorities began to perceive Armenians as a threat after 1878.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=48–49}} In 1891, Abdul Hamid created the [[Hamidiye (cavalry)|''Hamidiye'' regiments]] from Kurdish tribes, allowing them to act with impunity against Armenians.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|pp=75–76}}{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=64}} From 1895 to 1896 the empire saw [[Hamidian massacres|widespread massacres]]; at least 100,000 Armenians were killed{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|pp=11, 65}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=129}} primarily by Ottoman soldiers and mobs let loose by the authorities.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=129–130}} Many Armenian villages were forcibly converted to Islam.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=271}} The Ottoman state bore ultimate responsibility for the killings,{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=130}}{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=11}} whose purpose was violently restoring the previous social order in which Christians would unquestioningly accept Muslim supremacy,{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=131}}{{sfn|Hovannisian|2017|p=201}} and forcing Armenians to emigrate, thereby decreasing their numbers.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=266}}
|
