Immanuel Kant: Perbedaan antara revisi

Dalam gagasannya tentang [[idealisme transendental]], Kant berargumen bahwa [[ruang]] dan [[waktu]] hanyalah "bentuk-bentuk intuisi" yang membentuk semua [[pengalaman]]. Oleh karena itu, meski "[[An sich|hal-hal-dalam-dirinya]]" itu ada dan berkontribusi pada pengalaman, namun itu tetap berbeda dari objek pengalaman. Dari sini dapat disimpulkan bahwa objek pengalaman hanyalah apa yang tampak, dan sifat segala sesuatu dalam pada dirinya sendiri (''an sich'') tidak dapat diketahui oleh manusia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Durant|first=Will|last2=Durant|first2=Ariel|date=1967|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq2ffQUf1GIC|title=The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution|publisher=MJF Books|isbn=978-1-56731-021-4|pages=571, 574|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055815/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq2ffQUf1GIC|archive-date=20 December 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Warburton2">{{Cite book|last=Nigel Warburton|year=2011|title=A little history of philosophy|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-15208-1|page=134|chapter=Chapter 19: Rose-tinted reality: Immanuel Kant|chapter-url={{Google books|SGL4QPwDTVsC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> Dalam upaya untuk menentang [[Skeptisisme filosofis|skeptisisme]] yang ia temukan dalam tulisan-tulisan karya filsuf [[David Hume]],<ref name="Kitcher Intro2">{{Cite book|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|year=1996|title=Critique of Pure Reason|location=Indianapolis/Cambridge|publisher=Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=0-87220-257-7|edition=Unified Edition with all variants from the 1781 and 1787 editions|publication-date=1996|page=l|translator-last=Pluhar|translator-first=Werner S.|chapter=Introduction by Patricia Kitcher, C. The Analytic of Principles|quote=Although Hume's name is not mentioned in either version of this section, from the beginning, Kant's readers have understood that his purpose was to vindicate the causal concept after Hume's devastating attack […] Kant's “reply to Hume” was to argue we could have no cognition of events, of objects changing by acquiring or losing a property, unless we used a concept of causation that included both the offending and related properties of universality and necessity.|orig-year=First edition originally published in 1781; second edition originally published in 1787}}</ref> ia menulis ''[[Kritik atas Nalar Murni|Critique of Pure Reason]]'' (1781/1787),<ref>There are two relatively recent translations:</ref> salah satu karyanya yang paling terkenal. Dalam karyanya itu, ia mengembangkan sebuah teori pengalaman untuk menjawab pertanyaan apakah pengetahuan ''[[Sebuah prioritas|apriori]]'' [[Perbedaan analitik-sintetik|sintetik]] itu mungkin. Hal ini pada gilirannya akan memungkinkan untuk menentukan batas-batas penyelidikan [[metafisika]]. Kant menyamakan idenya dengan [[revolusi Copernicus]] untuk menentukan objek indera sebagai sesuatu yang sesuai dengan bentuk [[intuisi]] spasial dan temporal kita, sehingga kita memiliki ''apriori'' kognisi tentang objek tersebut.{{Efn|"Up to now it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to the objects; but all attempts to find out something about them ''a priori'' through concepts that would extend our cognition have, on this presupposition, come to nothing. Hence let us once try whether we do not get farther with the problems of metaphysics by assuming that the objects must conform to our cognition, which would agree better with the requested possibility of an ''a priori'' cognition of them, which is to establish something about objects before they are given to us. This would be just like the first thoughts of [[Copernicus]], who, when he did not make good progress in the explanation of the celestial motions if he assumed that the entire celestial host revolves around the observer, tried to see if he might not have greater success if he made the observer revolve and left the stars at rest. Now in metaphysics we can try in a similar way regarding the intuition of objects. If intuition has to conform to the constitution of the objects, then I do not see how we can know anything of them ''a priori''; but if the object (as an object of the senses) conforms to the constitution of our faculty of intuition, then I can very well represent this possibility to myself."<ref name="CPureR Cambridge">{{cite book|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|title=Critique of Pure Reason|series=The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant|year=1999|others=Translated and edited by [[Paul Guyer]] and [[Allen W. Wood]]|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|isbn=978-0-5216-5729-7}}</ref>{{rp|110 (B xvi–vii)}}}}

Kant mendukung gagasan bahwa [[perdamaian abadi]] dapat tercapai melalui [[demokrasi]] universal dan [[Multilateralisme|kerjasama internasional]], dan mungkin hal ini bisa menjadi tahap puncak dari [[sejarah dunia]].<ref>Kant, Immanuel (1784). "[[Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose]]".</ref> Pandangan keagamaan Kant terus menjadi subyek perdebatan ilmiah, mulai dari kesan bahwa ia bergeser dari posisi [[argumen ontologis]] tentang keberadaan [[Tuhan]] ke [[agnostisisme]] berprinsip, ke perawatanpandangan yang lebih kritis seperti yang dicontohkan oleh [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], yang mengkritik bentuk imperatif [[etika Kant]] sebagai "moral [[Teologi|teologis]]", hingga [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] yang mengklaim bahwa Kant mempunyai "darah teolog"<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, [[Antikristus (buku)|''The Anti-Christ'']] (1895), [https://books.google.com/books?id=DcVl57jzP2gC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=%22theologian+blood%22+the+antichrist#v=onepage&q=%22theologian%20blood%22%20the%20antichrist para. 10] {{Webarchive}}.</ref> dan hanyalah [[Apologetika|pembela]] agama [[Kekristenan|Kristen]] tradisional yang ahli.{{Efn|Nietzsche wrote that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche (trans. [[Walter Arnold Kaufmann]]), ''The Portable Nietzsche'', 1976, p. 96.</ref>}} Di luar pandangan agamanya, Kant telah dikritik karena [[rasisme]] dalam beberapa makalahnya yang kurang dikenal, seperti "''On the Use of Teleological Principles in Philosophy''" and "''On the Different Races of Man''".<ref name="Eze2">{{Cite book|last=Eze|first=Emmanuel Chukwudi|date=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwkRtAEACAAJ|title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-20339-1|pages=103–131|language=en|access-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055821/https://books.google.com/books?id=BwkRtAEACAAJ|archive-date=20 December 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Eze">{{Cite book|last=Eze|first=Emmanuel Chukwudi|date=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BaguAEACAAJ|title=Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-20136-6|pages=39–48|language=en|access-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055823/https://books.google.com/books?id=0BaguAEACAAJ|archive-date=20 December 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Slate">{{Cite web|last=Bouie|first=Jamelle|date=5 June 2018|title=How the Enlightenment Created Modern Race Thinking and Why We Should Confront It|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/06/taking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html|website=Slate Magazine|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615090940/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/06/taking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html|archive-date=15 June 2020|access-date=15 June 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Bernasconi">{{Cite journal|last=Bernasconi|first=Robert|date=2010|title=Defining Race Scientifically: A response to Michael Banton|journal=Ethnicities|volume=10|issue=1|pages=141–148|doi=10.1177/14687968100100010802|issn=1468-7968|jstor=23890861}}</ref> Meskipun dalam sebagian besar karirnya dia menjadi pendukung [[rasisme ilmiah]] untuk sebagian, pandangan Kant tentang ras berubah secara signifikan dalam dekade terakhir kehidupannya. Pada akhirnya, Kant menolak hierarki rasial dan [[kolonialisme]] Eropa dalam karyanya ''[[Perdamaian Abadi: Sebuah Sketsa Filosofis|Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]'' (1795).<ref name="Kleingeld">{{Cite journal|last=Kleingeld|first=Pauline|date=October 2007|title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2768306/Kants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf|journal=The Philosophical Quarterly|volume=57|issue=229|pages=573–592|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216193713/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2768306/Kants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf|archive-date=16 February 2019|access-date=14 December 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>