Pengguna:Rochelimit/Sandbox

Koin kuno di Indonesia

1 masa koin emas masing-masing 5 milimeter.

By the 10th-century, Java had the most complex economies in Southeast Asia. Despite the importance of rice farming which acts as a king of tax income for the Javanese courts, the influx of sea trade in Asia between the 10th and 13th centuries forced a more convenient currency to the Javanese economy. During the late 8th-century, a kind of ingots made of gold and silver were introduced. These are the Early Indonesian coins.

Early development in Central Java

In Java, rice farming was still the main occupation of most households in the village. This continued to provide most of the tax income of the Javanese courts. Later in the period, the northern coasts of Java and Bali became the main center of an affluent export trade in local agricultural products and manufactures, as well as spices e.g. sandalwood from east of Indonesia. These trade brought shipping industry to distant markets e.g. China and India. The increasing intensity of trade called for a convenient currency in the Javanese society.

During the late 8th-century money took the form of ingots made of gold and silver. These are the earliest recorded coins in Indonesia. The currency in Indonesia is based on weight; the most common units were the kati of 750 gram (26 oz), tahil of 38 gram (1,3 oz), masa 24 gram (0,85 oz) and kupang 06 gram (0,21 oz). These units were legal tender for tax payments. The kati, tahil, masa and kupang units remained in use up until the Dutch period. Several trade jargon were introduced in this period, e.g. the Javanese wli, which became the modern Indonesian beli ("buy"), and the Sanskrit wyaya, modern Indonesian term biaya ("expenses") appears in two inscriptions both dated 878 AD. The Javanese coins have no parallels with the style of Indian coins. Most of the Javanese coins were found within the Javanese kingdom of Shailendra.

Gold coins

A gold coin of probably the highest denomination of ka.

Most gold coins of 9th and early 10th century Java are stamped with the character ta in nagari script on one side, an abbreviation of tahil. The same character remain on coins until the Kediri Kingdom period in the 12th-century. Gold coins were usually made in the shape of cubes, carefully crafted and very uniform and size and gold content.

Silver coins

Sandalwood decoration or quatrefoil appeared in the silver ingot on the picture below.

Central Javanese silver coins have very different shape compared with the gold coins. Most silver coins are round and known as "sandalwood flower" coins referring to the four-petaled flower (quatrefoil) found on the reverse. The silver coins lasted from the early 9th until the 14th century. The same flower appears on one side of older silver ingots from central Java; the other side is stamped with a flowing vase design, which is never found on coins. The observe of the sandalwood flower coins are stamped with the nagiri character ma (abbreviation of masa).

Unlike the gold coins, the silver coins changed rapidly. In only one century, the character ma degenerated very quickly, perhaps because it is different with the Javanese Kawi letter for ma. The shape also changed; in the early 10th-century, the shape of one masa changed from a thick and flat coin, to a thin and cup-shaped coin. The silver coins were presumably served as small change. The silver coins were probably created by smiths in the market for use in market transactions.

In Java, beginning at the end of the 10th-century and onwards, more and more Chinese copper coins were imported in greater quantities, as well as Chinese cash and local copies, known as pisis. These coins began to displace the silver alloy coins as small denomination currency. By the mid-14th century, there were so many pisis in circulation, that the Javanese court recognized them as official currency for tax purposes.

Sumatran coins

In Sumatra, coins were first minted in the 11th-century. Similar sandalwood flower coins like those in Java were discovered in Sumatra, but more of these were made of gold, electrum, and silver alloy. Several 11th-century sites in Sumatra including Barus, Bengkulu, and Muara Jambi were abundant of gold coins, while silver is rare. Similar coins were found also in South Thailand. The Sumatran silver alloy examples are very well made compared with the Javanese silver coins.

Curiously, no coins have been found at Palembang, said to be the center of the Sriwijayan economy. This suggests that coins may have had a limited role in the early Sriwijayan economy. International trade might have been conducted either through the mechanism known as tributary trade or in other form known as administered trade. In administered trade system, equivalencies were established between commodities through diplomatic negotiations rather than bargaining.

Legacy

The gold piloncitos of the Philippines are a late offshoot of the Indonesian gold coinage, while the bean-like silver "namo" series, of the Malay isthmus was presumably an offshoot of the silver and may have evolved into the bullet (Pod-Duang) coinage of Sukhothai in Thailand.

See also

• Piloncito

Cited works

• Christie, Jan (1996). "The Early Indonesian Economy". Dalam Miksic, John. Ancient History. Singapore: Didier Millet. ISBN 9813018267. 

Temuan Tell Asmar

[[File:Standing male worshiper MET DT850.jpg|thumb|right|Salah satu dari dua belas patung di Temuan Tell Asmar. Dua belas patung batu kapur yang dikenal secara kolektif sebagai Temuan Tell Asmar (periode awal Dinasti I-II di Mesopotamia, sekitar 2900–2550 BC) ditemukan setelah proses penggalian pada tahun 1933 di Eshnunna (sekarang Tell Asmar) di wilayah Diyala di Irak. Terlepas dari temuan-temuan selanjutnya di situs ini dan di situs lain yang merupakan bekas daerah kekuasaan Mesopotamia, dua belas patung yang ditemukan di Tell Asmar tetap menjadi contoh definitif dari gaya abstrak patung kuil di periode Dinasti awal di Mesopotamia (2900-2350 SM).

Penemuan

Patung yang terbuat dari batu kapur abu-abu di Tell Asmar.

Pada akhir tahun 1920-an pedagang barang antik di Baghdad memperoleh sejumlah besar artefak yang tidak biasa dan bermutu tinggi dari padang pasir di sebelah timur Sungai Diyala, kira-kira di sisi utara dari pertemuan sungai Diyala dengan sungai Tigris. Pada tahun 1929 Institut Oriental di Universitas Chicago memperoleh konsesi untuk menggali daerah tersebut. James Henry Breasted (1865–1935), pendiri Institut Oriental di Universitas Chicago, mengundang arkeolog Belanda Henri Frankfort (1897–1954) untuk memimpin ekspedisi tersebut. Antara tahun 1930 dan 1937 Frankfort dan timnya melakukan penggalian horizontal dan vertikal secara ekstensif di empat gundukan: Khafajah, Tell Asmar (Eshnunna kuno), Tell Agrab, dan Ishchali Mereka menemukan kuil, istana, bangunan administratif, dan rumah-rumah domestik yang berasal dari tahun 3100 sampai 1750 SM. Ratusan artefak yang ditemukan dari reruntuhan stratifikasi di struktur sipil kuno ini semakin meningkatkan pemahaman tentang periode-periode Dinasti Awal di Mesopotamia.

Patung-patung

Patung-patung di Temuan Tell Asmar berkisar antara 21 sentimeter (8,3 in) sampai 72 sentimeter (28 in). Dari dua belas patung ditemukan sepuluh figur laki-laki dan dua figur perempuan. Delapan dari figur tersebut terbuat dari gipsum, dua dari batu kapur, dan satu (yang terkecil) dari alabaster.^:57–59 Semua figur, kecuali satu yang sedang berlutut, berada dalam posisi berdiri. Sebuah dasar berbentuk lingkaran digunakan sebagai pendukung dan sebuah pasak memberikan dukungan terhadap patung yang berukuran besar. Figur laki-laki mengenakan sarung dengan ujung berpola yang menutupi bagian tengah tubuh dan paha. Bahunya yang lebar dan lengan yang melingkar membingkai dada yang berbentuk bidang, yang sebagian ditutupi oleh janggut hitam. Semua laki-laki, kecuali figur yang tidak memiliki rambut, memiliki rambut panjang yang dibuat dalam dua belah simetris yang membingkai wajah. Mata besar dari figur-figur ini terbuat dari tatahan kerang putih dan batu kapur hitam; satu figur memiliki batu mulia lapis lazuli sebagai pupilnya.^:57–59 Bahan-bahan baku ini ditempelkan kepada figur-figur tersebut dengan bantuan bitumen, yang juga digunakan untuk memberi pigmen warna hitam pada jenggot dan rambut beberapa figur. Gaya rambut dan pakaian figur-figur ini secara akurat merefleksikan gaya berpakaian Sumeria pada periode Dinasti Awal.^:49–52

Temuan-temuan tersebut ditemukan disebuah kuil yang didedikasikan untuk Abu, dewa kesuburan Timur Dekat kuno. Bukti dari reruntuhan Dinasti Awal di Khafajah menunjukkan bahwa patung-patung itu mungkin telah diatur di sepanjang dinding tempat suci di lantai atau di atas bangku bata lumpur sebelum dikuburkan.^:10 Beberapa patung memiliki tulisan di punggung atau dibagian bawah dengan sebuah nama dan sebuah pesan pembuka yang dipersonalisasi, sementara yang lain hanya bertuliskan "seseorang yang menawarkan doa." Prasasti ini menunjukkan bahwa patung-patung itu berfungsi sebagai pengganti jamaah pria dan wanita yang ingin meninggalkan doa mereka di kuil kepada tuhan.

Frankfort berpendapat bahwa angka terbesar dalam tumpukan bukanlah patung pemuja manusia, melainkan sebuah representasi dari dewa pelindung Abu [5]. Dia meminta perhatian pada sejumlah fitur yang membedakan patung ini dari yang lain, termasuk: ukuran, mata besar yang tidak wajar, terutama pupil, dan ukiran emblematik elang dengan sayap terentang yang diapit oleh dua ekor kambing gunung yang terukir di atas dasar. [5]

Di antara benda-benda yang paling terkenal dan paling terpelihara di Tell Asmar adalah dua belas patung yang dikenal secara kolektif sebagai papan selam Tell Asmar. Temuan tersebut ditemukan pada ekskavasi tahun 1933-1934 di Tell Asmar dibawah lantai yang ditujukan untuk dewa Abu. Patung-patung tersebut ditumpuk dengan rapi disebuah rongga persegi panjang di samping sebuah altar di dalam tempat suci di kuil tersebut. Kenyataan bahwa patung-patung tersebut ditempatkan secara hati-hati menunjukkan bahwa mereka dikubur dengan sengaja. Namun, alasan pemakaman dan orang yang bertanggung jawab untuk melakukannya masih tidak jelas. Frankfort, yang banyak menulis tentang Temuan Tell Asmar, mengusulkan suatu ide dimana pemuka agama dari kuil tersebut secara rutin mengubur patung-patung yang sudah tua atau yang sudah rusak untuk memberi ruang didalam kuil untuk penggantian patung-patung tersebut.^:16

Frankfort argued that the largest figure in the hoard is not an effigy of a human worshiper, but rather a representation of the patron deity Abu. He calls attention to a number of features that set this particular statue apart from the rest including: the size, the unnaturally large eyes, especially the pupils, and the emblematic carving of an eagle with outstretched wings flanked by two recumbent mountain goats carved on the base.

References

• [1] Henri Frankfort, Thorkild Jacobsen, and Conrad Preusser, Tell Asmar and Khafaje: The First Season Work in Eshnunna 1930/31, Oriental Institute Publication 13, 1932
• [2] Henri Frankfort, Tell Asmar, Khafaje and Khorsabad: Second Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 16, 1933
• [3] Henri Frankfort, Iraq Excavations of the Oriental Institute 1932/33: Third Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 17, 1934
• [4] Henri Frankfort with a chapter by Thorkild Jacobsen, Oriental Institute Discoveries in Iraq, 1933/34: Fourth Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 19, 1935
• [5] Henri Frankfort, Progress of the Work of the Oriental Institute in Iraq, 1934/35: Fifth Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 20, 1936
• [6] Henri Frankfort, Seton Lloyd, and Thorkild Jacobsen with a chapter by Günter Martiny, The Gimilsin Temple and the Palace of the Rulers at Tell Asmar, Oriental Institute Publication 43, 1940

Bibliography

• Evans, Jean. 2012. The Lives Of Sumerian Sculpture: An Archaeology of the Early Dynastic Temple. Chicago: University of Chicago.
• Evans, Jean. 2007. The Square Temple at Tell Asmar and the Construction of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia, ca. 2900-2350 B.C.E. American Journal of Archaeology 4: 599-632.
• Frankfort, Henri. 1939. Sculpture of the 3rd Millennium B.C. from Tell Asmar and Khafajah. The University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications 60. Chicago.
• 1943. More Sculpture from the Diyala Region. The University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications 60. Chicago.
• Jacobsen, Thorkild, "God or Worshipper", in Essays in Ancient Civilization Presented to Helene J. Kantor, edited by A. Leonard Jr. and B.B. Williams, p 125-30. Chicago. 1989.

Batu Goa

Goa Stone and container, probably from Goa, India, late 17th–early 18th century.

A Goa stone is a man-made bezoar that is considered to have medicinal and talismanic properties. Goa stones were manufactured by Jesuits in the late seventeenth century in Goa, India, because naturally occurring bezoars were scarce. Their inventor was the Florentine lay brother Gaspar Antonio, and a Jesuit monopoly was confirmed by the Portuguese on March 6, 1691. They were created by combining organic and inorganic materials including hair, shells, tusks, resin, and crushed gems, then shaping the materials into a ball and gilting it. Like bezoar stones, Goa stones were thought to prevent disease and cure poisoning. They could be administered by shaving off small pieces into a drinkable beverage like water, tea, or wine.

Goa stones were kept in ornate, solid gold or gilded cases that were believed to enhance the medicinal properties of the stones. The cases usually featured a busy network of filagree, occasionally adorned with ornaments of animals, including monkeys, unicorns, dogs, and parrots.