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Kritik teks

cabang ilmu penelitian teks, filologi, dan kritik sastra yang mempelajari identifikasi varian teks atau macam-macam versi naskah tulis-tangan maupun buku cetak
Revisi sejak 23 Mei 2018 18.57 oleh JohnThorne (bicara | kontrib) (Perbaikan)
Artikel ini tentang kritik teks secara umum. Untuk kritik teks sebagai metode tafsir Alkitab, lihat Kritik teks (Alkitab).

Kritik teks (Kritik tekstual; bahasa Inggris: Textual criticism) dalam bidang kesarjanaan tekstual, filologi dan kritik sastra adalah sebuah metode untuk mengidentifikasi varian-varian tekstual dalam suatu naskah/manuskrip atau dokumen cetak.

Para juru tulis kuno dapat saja membuat perubahan ketika menyalin suatu naskah dengan tangan.[1] Dengan adanya satu, beberapa atau banyak salinan naskah, dan tidak adanya dokumen asli, para kritikus teks berupaya untuk merekonstruksi teks asli (disebut archetype atau autograph; "otograf) semirip mungkin. Proses yang sama dapat diterapkan untuk merekonstruksi versi antara (intermediate), atau "resensi", dalam sejarah transmisi dokument tersebut.[2]

Tujuan pekerjaan kritik teks adalah untuk lebih memahami penciptaan dan sejarah transmisi teks. Pemahaman ini dapat menghasilkan suatu "edisi kritis" ("critical edition") yang memuat suatu teks kolektif hasil penelitian para sarjana. Ada sejumlah pendekatan dalam kritik teks, terutama eclecticism, stemmatics, dan penyuntingan copy-text. Teknis kuantitatif juga digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan antara "saksi-saksi" (witnesses) suatu naskah, dengan metode dari biologi evolutioner (Phylogenetics) nampaknya efektif untuk suatu rentang tradisi. Dalam ranah-ranah (domains) tertentu di bidang penyuntingan teks agamawi dan klasika, muncul frasa

"lower criticism" ("kritik tingkat rendah") untuk menggambarkan kontras antara kritik teks dengan "en:higher criticism" ("kritik tingkat tinggi"), yang berupaya menggali kepengarangan, tarikh dan tempat penyusunan naskah asli.

Sejarah

Kritik teks sudah dipraktikkan lebih dari dua ribu tahun, di mana kritikus teks awal, terutama adalah para pustakawan dari Hellenistic Alexandria sekitar abad ke-2 SM, memperhatikan upaya pelestarian karya-karya dari zaman antiquity, dan diteruskan ke abad pertengahan sampai zaman modern dan dengan penemuan mesin percetakan.

 
11th-century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with Targum
 
A page from the Aleppo Codex, Deuteronomy.

Textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible compares manuscript versions of the following sources (dates refer to the oldest extant manuscripts in each family):

Manuscript Examples Language Date of Composition Oldest Copy
Dead Sea Scrolls Tanakh at Qumran Hebrew, Paleo Hebrew and Greek(Septuagint) c. 150 BCE – 70 CE c. 150 BCE – 70 CE
Septuagint Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and other earlier papyri Greek 300–100 BCE 2nd century BCE(fragments)
4th century CE(complete)
Peshitta Syriac early 5th century CE
Vulgate Latin early 5th century CE
Masoretic Aleppo Codex, Leningrad Codex and other incomplete mss Hebrew ca. 100 CE 10th century CE
Samaritan Pentateuch Abisha Scroll of Nabus Hebrew in Samaritan alphabet 200–100 BCE Oldest extant mss c.11th century CE, oldest mss available to scholars 16th century CE, only Torah contained
Targum Aramaic 500–1000 CE 5th century CE

As in the New Testament, changes, corruptions, and erasures have been found, particularly in the Masoretic texts. This is ascribed to the fact that early soferim (scribes) did not treat copy errors in the same manner later on.[3]

There are three separate new editions of the Hebrew Bible currently in development: Biblia Hebraica Quinta, the Hebrew University Bible, and the Oxford Hebrew Bible. Biblia Hebraica Quinta is a diplomatic edition based on the Leningrad Codex. The Hebrew University Bible is also diplomatic, but based on the Aleppo Codex. The Oxford Hebrew Bible is an eclectic edition.[4]

Alkitab Ibrani sebagai Perjanjian Lama

As far as the Hebrew Bible referenced by the Old Testament is concerned, almost all of the textual variants are fairly insignificant and hardly affect any doctrine. Professor Douglas Stuart states: "It is fair to say that the verses, chapters, and books of the Bible would read largely the same, and would leave the same impression with the reader, even if one adopted virtually every possible alternative reading to those now serving as the basis for current English translations."[5]

Perjanjian Baru

Artikel utama: Textual criticism of the New Testament

Early New Testament texts include more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages (including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian). The manuscripts contain approximately 300,000 textual variants, most of them involving changes of word order and other comparative trivialities.[6][7][membutuhkan kutipan untuk dapat dipastikan] Thus, for over 250 years, New Testament scholars have argued that no textual variant affects any doctrine. Professor D. A. Carson states: "nothing we believe to be doctrinally true, and nothing we are commanded to do, is in any way jeopardized by the variants. This is true for any textual tradition. The interpretation of individual passages may well be called in question; but never is a doctrine affected."[6][8]

The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, chiefly in that it makes stemmatics in many cases impossible, because many writers used two or more different manuscripts as sources. Consequently, New Testament textual critics have adopted eclecticism after sorting the witnesses into three major groups, called text-types. Hingga 2017 the most common division distinguishes:

Text type Date Characteristics Bible version
The Alexandrian text-type
(also called the "Neutral Text" tradition; less frequently, the "Minority Text")		 2nd–4th centuries CE This family constitutes a group of early and well-regarded texts, including Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus. Most representatives of this tradition appear to come from around Alexandria, Egypt and from the Alexandrian Church. It contains readings that are often terse, shorter, somewhat rough, less harmonised, and generally more difficult. The family was once[per kapan?] thought[oleh siapa?] to result from a very carefully edited 3rd-century recension, but now is believed to be merely the result of a carefully controlled and supervised process of copying and transmission. It underlies most translations of the New Testament produced since 1900. NIV, NAB, NABRE, Douay, JB and NJB (albeit, with some reliance on the Byzantine text-type), TNIV, NASB, RSV, ESV, EBR, NWT, LB, ASV, NC, GNB, CSB
The Western text-type 3rd–9th centuries CE Also a very early tradition, which comes from a wide geographical area stretching from North Africa to Italy and from Gaul to Syria. It occurs in Greek manuscripts and in the Latin translations used by the Western church. It is much less controlled than the Alexandrian family and its witnesses are seen to be more prone to paraphrase and other corruptions. It is sometimes called the Caesarean text-type. Some New Testament scholars would argue that the Caesarean constitutes a distinct text-type of its own. Vetus Latina
The Byzantine text-type; also, Koinē text-type
(also called "Majority Text")		 5th–16th centuries CE This group comprises around 95% of all the manuscripts, the majority of which are comparatively very late in the tradition. It had become dominant at Constantinople from the 5th century on and was used throughout the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire. It contains the most harmonistic readings, paraphrasing and significant additions, most of which are believed[oleh siapa?] to be secondary readings. It underlies the Textus Receptus used for most Reformation-era translations of the New Testament. KJV, NKJV, Tyndale, Coverdale, Geneva, Bishops' Bible, OSB

Talmud

Textual criticism of the Talmud has a long pre-history but has become a separate discipline from Talmudic study only recently.[9] Much of the research is in Hebrew and German language periodicals.[10]

Classical texts

While textual criticism developed into a discipline of thorough analysis of the Bible — both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament — scholars also use it to determine the original content of classic texts, such as Plato's Republic.[11] There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, so scholars can use stemmatics and, in some cases, copy text editing. However, unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are within 200 years of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition. All things being equal, textual scholars expect that a larger time gap between an original and a manuscript means more changes in the text.

Scientific and critical editions can be protected by copyright as works of authorship if enough creativity/originality is provided. The mere addition of a word, or substitution of a term with another one believed to be more correct, usually does not achieve such level of originality/creativity. All the notes accounting for the analysis and why and how such changes have been made represent a different work autonomously copyrightable if the other requirements are satisfied. In the European Union critical and scientific editions may be protected also by the relevant neighboring right that protects critical and scientific publications of public domain works as made possible by art. 5 of the Copyright Term Directive. Not all EU member States have transposed art. 5 into national law.[12]

Digital textual scholarship

Digital textual criticism is a relatively new branch of textual criticism working with digital tools to establish a critical edition. The development of digital editing tools has allowed editors to transcribe, archive and process documents much faster than before. Some scholars claim digital editing has radically changed the nature of textual criticism; but others believe the editing process has remained fundamentally the same, and digital tools have simply made aspects of it more efficient.[butuh rujukan]

Sejarah teks digital

From its beginnings, digital scholarly editing involved developing a system for displaying both a newly "typeset" text and a history of variations in the text under review. Until about halfway through the first decade of the twenty-first century, digital archives relied almost entirely on manual transcriptions of texts. However, over the course of this decade, image files became much faster and cheaper, and storage space and upload times ceased to be significant issues. The next step in digital scholarly editing was the wholesale introduction of images of historical texts, particularly high-definition images of manuscripts, formally offered only in samples.[13]

Metode

In view of the need to represent historical texts primarily through transcription, and because transcriptions required encoding for every aspect of text that could not be recorded by a single keystroke on the QWERTY keyboard, encoding was invented. Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) uses encoding for the same purpose, although its particulars were designed for scholarly uses in order to offer some hope that scholarly work on digital texts had a good chance of migrating from aging operating systems and/or digital platforms to new ones, and the hope that standardization would lead to easy interchange of data among different projects.[13] -->

Software

Sejumlah program dan standar komputer sudah ada untuk mendukung para penyunting edisi-edisi kritis. Ini termasuk:

  • Text Encoding Initiative. The Guidelines of the TEI provide much detailed analysis of the procedures of critical editing, including recommendations about how to mark up a computer file containing a text with critical apparatus. See especially the following chapters of the Guidelines: 10. Manuscript Description, 11. Representation of Primary Sources, and 12. Critical Apparatus.
  • Juxta is an open-source tool for comparing and collating multiple witnesses to a single textual work. It was designed to aid scholars and editors examine the history of a text from manuscript to print versions. Juxta provides collation for multiple versions of texts that are marked up in plain text or TEI/XML format.
  • The EDMAC macro package for Plain TeX is a set of macros originally developed by John Lavagnino and Dominik Wujastyk for typesetting critical editions. "EDMAC" stands for "EDition" "MACros." EDMAC is in maintenance mode.
  • The ledmac package is a development of EDMAC by Peter R. Wilson for typesetting critical editions with LaTeX. ledmac is in maintenance mode.[14]
  • The eledmac package is a further development of ledmac by Maïeul Rouquette that adds more sophisticated features and solves more advanced problems. eledmac was forked from ledmac when it became clear that it needed to develop in ways that would compromise backward-compatibility. eledmac is maintenance mode.
  • The reledmac package is a further development of eledmac by Maïeul Rouquette that rewrittes many part of the code in order to allow more robust developments in the future. In 2015, it is in active development.
  • ednotes, written by Christian Tapp and Uwe Lück is another package for typesetting critical editions using LaTeX.
  • Classical Text Editor is a word-processor for critical editions, commentaries and parallel texts written by Stefan Hagel. CTE is designed for use on the Windows operating system, but has been successfully run on Linux and OS/X using Wine. CTE can export files in TEI format. CTE is currently (2014) in active development.
  • Critical Edition Typesetter by Bernt Karasch is a system for typesetting critical editions starting from input into a word-processor, and ending up with typesetting with TeX and EDMAC. Development opf CET seems to have stopped in 2004.

Lihat pula

Topik

Edisi kritis

Kitab Mormon
  • Book of Mormon Critical Text – FARMS 2nd edition
Alkitab Ibrani dan Perjanjian Lama
Perjanjian Baru
Critical Translations
  • The Comprehensive New Testament – standardized Nestle-Aland 27 edition[17]
  • The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible – with textual mapping to Masoretic, Dead Sea Scrolls, and Septuagint variants
  • New English Translation of the Septuagint, a critical translation from the completed parts of the Göttingen Septuagint, with the remainder from Rahlf's manual edition

Daftar

Referensi

  1. ^ Ehrman 2005, p. 46.
  2. ^ Vincent. A History of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament
    "... that process which it sought to determine the original text of a document or a collection of documents, and to exhibit, freed from all the errors, corruptions, and variations which may have been accumulated in the course of its transcription by successive copying."
  3. ^ Tov 2001, p. 9
  4. ^ Hendel, R., "The Oxford Hebrew Bible: Prologue to a New Critical Edition", Vetus Testamentum, vol. 58, no. 3 (2008). pp. 325–326
  5. ^ Kaiser, Walter (2001). The Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable & Relevant?. InterVarsity Press. hlm. 48. ISBN 9780830819751. 
  6. ^ a b Wallace, Daniel. "The Majority Text and the Original Text: Are They Identical?". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 3 December 2013. Diakses tanggal 23 November 2013. 
  7. ^ Westcott and Hort (1896). The New Testament in The Original Greek: Introduction Appendix. Diakses tanggal 23 November 2013. 
  8. ^ Beacham, Roy E.; Bauder, Kevin T. One Bible Only?: Examining Exclusive Claims for the King James Bible (dalam bahasa Inggris). Kregel Publications. ISBN 9780825497032. 
  9. ^ Economic analysis in Talmudic literature: rabbinic thought in the .Roman A. Ohrenstein, Barry Gordon.. Page 9 2009 "In fact, textual criticism of the Talmud is as old as the Talmud itself. In modern times, however, it became a separate scholarly concern, where scientific method is applied to correct corrupt and incomprehensible passages.
  10. ^ The treatise Ta'anit of the Babylonian Talmud: Henry Malter – 1978 It goes without saying that the writings of modern authors dealing with textual criticism of the Talmud, many of which are scattered in Hebrew and German periodicals, are likewise to be utilized for the purpose.
  11. ^ Habib 2005, p. 239
  12. ^ Margoni, Thomas; Mark Perry (2011). "Scientific and Critical Editions of Public Domain Works: An Example of European Copyright Law (Dis)Harmonization". Canadian Intellectual Property Review. 27 (1): 157–170. SSRN 1961535  . 
  13. ^ a b Shillingsburg, Peter, "Literary Documents, Texts, and Works Represented Digitally" (2013). Center for Textual Studies and Digital Humanities Publications. 3. "Archived copy". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-08-16. Diakses tanggal 2017-05-16. 
  14. ^ See further the useful guidelines offered by Dekker, D-J. "Typesetting Critical Editions with LaTeX: ledmac, ledpar and ledarab". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 5 September 2014. Diakses tanggal 14 May 2014. 
  15. ^ Novum Testamentum Graece, German Bible Society "Archived copy". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-11-02. Diakses tanggal 2013-10-31. 
  16. ^ UBS Greek New Testament, German Bible Society "Archived copy". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-11-02. Diakses tanggal 2013-10-31. 
  17. ^ http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/6583_7128.pdf

Pustaka

  • Aland, Kurt, Aland, Barbara (1987). The Text of the New Testament. Brill. ISBN 90-04-08367-7. 
  • Aland, Barbara (1994). New Testament Textual Criticism, Exegesis and Church History. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 90-390-0105-7. 
  • Bentham, George, Gosse, Edmund. The Variorum and Definitive Edition of the Poetical and Prose Writings of Edward Fitzgerald, (1902), Doubleday, Page and Co.
  • Bowers, Fredson (1964). "Some Principles for Scholarly Editions of Nineteenth-Century American Authors". Studies in Bibliography. 17: 223–228. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-04. 
  • Bowers, Fredson (1972). "Multiple Authority: New Problems and Concepts of Copy-Text". Library, Fifth Series. XXVII (2): 81–115. 
  • Bradley, Sculley, Leaves of Grass: A Textual Variorum of the Printed Poems, (1980), NYU Press, ISBN 0-8147-9444-0
  • Comfort, Philip Wesley (2005). Encountering the Manuscripts: An Introduction to New Testament Paleography & Textual Criticism. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8054-3145-4. 
  • Davis, Tom (1977). "The CEAA and Modern Textual Editing". Library, Fifth Series. XXXII (32): 61–74. 
  • Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4. 
  • Ehrman, Bart D. (2006). Whose Word Is It?. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-9129-4. 
  • Gaskell, Philip (1978). From Writer to Reader: Studies in Editorial Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-818171-X. 
  • Greetham, D. C. (1999). Theories of the text. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-811993-3. 
  • Greg, W. W. (1950). "The Rationale of Copy-Text". Studies in Bibliography. 3: 19–36. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-04. 
  • Habib, Rafey (2005). A history of literary criticism: from Plato to the present. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 0-631-23200-1. 
  • Hartin, Patrick J., Petzer J. H., Manning, Bruce. Text and Interpretation: New Approaches in the Criticism of the New Testament. (1991), BRILL, ISBN 90-04-09401-6
  • Jarvis, Simon, Scholars and Gentlemen: Shakespearian Textual Criticism and Representations of Scholarly Labour, 1725–1765, Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-19-818295-3
  • Klijn, Albertus Frederik Johannes, An Introduction to the New Testament (1980), p. 14, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-06263-7
  • Maas, Paul (1958). Textual Criticism:. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814318-4. 
  • McCarter, Peter Kyle Jr (1986). Textual criticism: recovering the text of the Hebrew Bible. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-0471-7. 
  • McGann, Jerome J. (1992). A critique of modern textual criticism. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-1418-3. 
  • McKerrow, R. B. (1939). Prolegomena for the Oxford Shakespeare. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
  • Montgomery, William Rhadamanthus; Wells, Stanley W.; Taylor, Gary; Jowett, John (1997). William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31667-X. 
  • Parker, D.C. (2008). An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and Their Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-71989-5. 
  • von Reenen, Pieter; Margot van Mulken, ed. (1996). Studies in Stemmatology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 
  • Rosemann, Philipp (1999). Understanding scholastic thought with Foucault. New York: St. Martin's Press. hlm. 73. ISBN 0-312-21713-7. 
  • Schuh, Randall T. (2000). Biological systematics: principles and applications. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3675-3. 
  • Shillingsburg, Peter (1989). "An Inquiry into the Social Status of Texts and Modes of Textual Criticism". Studies in Bibliography. 42: 55–78. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-07. 
  • Tanselle, G. Thomas (1972). "Some Principles for Editorial Apparatus". Studies in Bibliography. 25: 41–88. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-04. 
  • Tanselle, G. Thomas (1975). "Greg's Theory of Copy-Text and the Editing of American Literature". Studies in Bibliography. 28: 167–230. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-04. 
  • Tanselle, G. Thomas (1976). "The Editorial Problem of Final Authorial Intention". Studies in Bibliography. 29: 167–211. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-04. 
  • Tanselle, G. Thomas (1981). "Recent Editorial Discussion and the Central Questions of Editing". Studies in Bibliography. 34: 23–65. Diakses tanggal 2007-09-07. 
  • Tanselle, G. Thomas (1986). "Historicism and Critical Editing". Studies in Bibliography. 39: 1–46. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-04. 
  • Tanselle, G. Thomas (1995). "The Varieties of Scholarly Editing". Dalam D. C. Greetham. Scholarly Editing: A Guide to Research. New York: The Modern Language Association of America. 
  • Tenney, Merrill C. (1985). Dunnett, Walter M., ed. New Testament survey. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8028-3611-9. 
  • Tov, Emanuel (2001). Textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 90-232-3715-3. 
  • Van Mulken, Margot ; Van Reenen, Pieter Th van. (1996). Studies in Stemmatology. John Benjamins Publishing Co. ISBN 90-272-2153-7. 
  • Vincent, Marvin Richardson (1899). A History of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. Macmillan. Original from Harvard University. ISBN 0-8370-5641-1. 
  • Wegner, Paul (2006). A Student's Guide to Textual Criticism of the Bible. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-2731-5. 
  • Wilson, N. R. p.; Reynolds, L. (1974). Scribes and scholars: a guide to the transmission of Greek and Latin literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press. hlm. 186. ISBN 0-19-814371-0. 
  • Zeller, Hans (1975). "A New Approach to the Critical Constitution of Literary Texts". Studies in Bibliography. 28: 231–264. Diakses tanggal 2006-06-07. 

Pustaka tambahan

  • Dabney, Robert L. (1871). "The Doctrinal Various Readings of the New Testament Greek", Southern Presbyterian Review, April 1871, p. 350-390.
  • Epp, Eldon J., The Eclectic Method in New Testament Textual Criticism: Solution or Symptom?, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 69, No. 3/4 (July–October 1976), pp. 211–257
  • Hagen, Kenneth, The Bible in the Churches: How Various Christians Interpret the Scriptures, Marquette Studies in Theology, Vol 4; Marquette University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-87462-628-5
  • Hodges, Zane C. and Farstad, Arthur L. The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text with Apparatus, Thomas Nelson; 2nd ed edition (January 1, 1985), ISBN 0-8407-4963-5
  • Housman, A. E. (1922). "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism". Proceedings of the Classical Association. 18: 67–84. Diakses tanggal 2008-03-08. 
  • Love, Harold (1993). "section III". Scribal Publication in Seventeenth-Century England. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-811219-X. 
  • Kittel, F. A. (1785). Neue Kritiken über den berühmten Sprych: Drey sind, die da zeugen in Himmel, der Vater, das Wort, und der heilge Geist, und diese drein sind eins. Eine synodalische Vorlesung. Braunschweig, Deutschland: John. Chr. Meyer.
  • Komoszewski, Sawyer and Wallace, (2006), Reinventing Jesus, Kregel Publications, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8254-2982-8
  • Metzger & Bart Ehrman, (2005), The Text of the New Testament, OUP, ISBN 978-0-19-516122-9
  • Schiffman, Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran; Jewish Publication Society, 1st ed. 1994, ISBN 0-8276-0530-7
  • Soulen, Richard N. and Soulen, R. Kendall, Handbook of Biblical Criticism; Westminster John Knox Press; 3 edition (October 2001), ISBN 0-664-22314-1

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