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Pengguna:Swarabakti/Kerajaan Wajo

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The Polynesian languages form a language family spoken in geographical Polynesia and on a patchwork of outliers from south central Micronesia to small islands off the northeast of the larger islands of the southeast Solomon Islands and sprinkled through Vanuatu. Linguistic taxonomists classify them as a subgroup of the much larger and more varied Austronesian family, belonging to the Oceanic branch of that family.[1]

All Polynesian languages show strong similarity, particularly in vocabulary. The vowels are often stable in the descendant languages, nearly always a, e, i, o and u. Consonant changes tend to be quite regular. The legendary homeland of many Polynesian peoples, reconstructed as *sawaiki, appears as Hawaiki among the Māori of New Zealand with s replaced by h; but 'Avaiki in the Cook Islands with s replaced by the glottal stop, and w by v; as Hawai'i, the name of the largest island in the Hawaiian Islands, with s replaced by h, and k by the glottal stop; as Savai'i, the largest island in Samoa, with w replaced by v, and k by the glottal stop; and as Havai'i in the Society Islands with s replaced by h, w replaced by v, and k by the glottal stop.[2]

Languages

Polynesian languages fall into two branches, Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Tongan and Niuean constitute the Tongic branch; all of the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch.[3]

History of classification

Templat:POV section The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by Andrew Pawley in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".[5]

Pawley published another study in 1967.[6] It began the process of extracting relationships from Polynesian languages on small islands in Melanesia, the "Polynesian Outliers", whose languages Pawley was able to trace to East Futuna in the case of those farther south and perhaps to Samoa itself in the case of those more to the north.

Except for some minor differentiation of the East Polynesian tree, further study paused for almost twenty years until Wilson[7] published a study of Polynesian pronominal systems in 1985 suggesting that there was a special relationship between the East Polynesian languages and all other Nuclear Polynesian but for Futunic, and calling that extra-Futunic group the "Ellicean languages". Furthermore, East Polynesian was found to more likely have emerged from extra-Samoan Ellicean than out of Samoa itself, an astonishing suggestion given the long assumption of a Samoan homeland for the origins of East Polynesian. Wilson named this new group "Ellicean" after the pre-independence name of Tuvalu and presented fine-grained evidence for subgroups within that overarching category.

Marck,[8] in 2000, was able to offer some support for some aspects of Wilson's suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic (irregular, unexpected) sound changes, e. g., Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu 'to heal' becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo. This was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon ("Pollex" – with reconstructions) of Biggs and Clark.[9]

Despite the relative low number of Polynesian languages, and the relative abundance of data already available on many of them, the comparative method was often reduced to comparisons of vocabulary, shared sporadic sound changes and, as Wilson had done in 1985, comparison of pronominal systems, which is perhaps the second most commonly described aspect of "minor" languages often available for comparison after the lexicostatistical lists. Wilson has a forthcoming work[10] providing further evidence of fine grained subgroups within Ellicean and a consideration of other recent work[11] on the matter of Ellicean internal relations. Wilson's new work brings the matter to the approximate limits of current data available, incorporating much data unknown to most other researchers.

Returning to lexicostatistics, it must be emphasised that the method does not make the best possible use of its short word lists of 100 or 200 words. Dyen's[12] massive lexicostatistical study of Austronesian, for instance, showed a great deal of (lexicostatistical) diversity in the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia. This was sometimes on par with the lexicostatistical distance of Taiwan Austronesian languages from other Austronesian including Taiwan Austronesian languages from each other (Taiwan now definitively known to be the homeland of the language family itself). But the low lexicostatistical agreement of many Western Melanesian Oceanic languages with other Oceanic Austronesian can be easily dismissed as of little subgrouping interest because those languages are nevertheless full of diagnostic innovations of Oceanic Austronesian in their sound systems and vocabulary, including many Oceanic lexical innovations found in the 100 and 200 lexicostatistical word lists (and the deadly conclusive evidence of the shared phonological innovations of those low-scoring groups with all other Oceanic Austronesian). The Western Oceanic Melanesian "diversity" of lexicostatistical studies was never of any interest in terms of attributing any special time depth or subgrouping significance to it. They are just languages with accelerated loss of vocabulary, sometimes, in the Western[butuh klarifikasi] Oceanic case, because they involve certain more ancient peoples of the region shifting to Oceanic speech after Oceanic-speaking peoples arrived.[13]

Personal pronouns

In general, Polynesian languages have three numbers for pronouns and possessives: singular, dual and plural. For example, in Māori: ia (he/she), rāua (they two), rātou (they 3 or more). The words rua (2) and toru (3) are still discernible in endings of the dual and plural pronouns, giving the impression that the plural was originally a trial (threesome) or paucal (a few), and that an original plural has disappeared.[14]

Numerals in Polynesian languages

[15]

English One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Ten
Niuean taha ua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu hiva hogofolu
Tongan taha ua tolu fa nima ono fitu valu hiva hongofulu
Samoan tasi lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva sefulu
Tuvaluan tasi lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva agafulu
Nanumea tahi lua tolu fā lima ono fitu valu iva toa
Tokelauan tahi lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva hefulu
Wallisian tahi lua tolu fā nima ono fitu valu hiva hogofulu
Pukapuka tayi lua tolu wa lima ono witu valu iva laugaulu
Rennellese tahi ŋgua toŋgu hā ŋgima ono hitu baŋgu iba katoa
Pileni tasi rua toru fā lima ono fitu valu iva kʰaro
Tikopia tasi rua toru fa rima ono fitu varu siva fuaŋafuru
Anuta tai rua toru paa nima ono pitu varu iva puangapuru
West Uvea tahi ƚua toƚu fa lima tahia-tupu luaona-tupu toluona-tupu faona-tupu limaona-tupu
Emae tasi rua toru fa rima ono fitu βaru siβa ŋafuru
Mele tasi rua toru fa rima ono fitu βaru siβa siŋafuru
Futuna-Aniwa tasi rua toru fa rima ono fitu varo iva tagafuru
Sikaiana tahi lua tolu hā lima ono hitu valo sivo sehui
Ontong Java kahi lua kolu hā lima oŋo hiku valu sivo sehui
Takuu tasi lua toru fa rima ono fitu varu sivo sinafuru
Kapingamarangi dahi lua dolu haa lima ono hidu walu hiwa mada
Nukuoro dahi ka-lua ka-dolu ka-haa ka-lima ka-ono ka-hidu ka-valu ka-siva ka-hulu
Rapa Nui tahi rua toru ha rima ono hitu vaʼu iva ʼahuru
Tahitian tahi piti toru maha pae ōno hitu vaʼu iva hōeʼahuru
Penrhyn tahi lua tolu hā lima ono hitu valu iva tahi-ngahulu
Rarotongan taʼi rua toru ā rima ono ʼitu varu iva ngaʼuru
Tuamotuan tahi rua toru fā rima ono hitu varu iva rongoʼuru
Maori tahi rua toru whā rima ono whitu waru iwa tekau (also ngahuru)
Moriori tehi teru toru tewha terima teono tewhitu tewaru teiwa meangauru
Mangareva tahi rua toru ha rima ono hitu varu iva rogouru
Marquesan e tahi e úa e toú e fa e íma e ono e fitu e vaú e iva ónohuú
Hawaiian ‘e-kahi ‘e-lua ‘e-kolu ‘e-hā ‘e-lima ‘e-ono ‘e-hiku ‘e-walu ‘e-iwa ‘umi

See also

  • Proto-Polynesian language – the reconstructed ancestral language from which modern Polynesian languages are derived.
  • ʻOkina – a glyph shaped like (but distinct from) an apostrophe: used to represent the glottal-stop consonant in some Polynesian Latin-based scripts.
  • Rongorongo – the undeciphered script of Easter Island (Rapanui).

Notes

  1. ^ In terms of numbers of languages, the 38 members of the Polynesian branch represent 7 percent of the 522 Oceanic languages, and 3 percent of the Austronesian family (source: Glottolog).
  2. ^ Hiroa, Te Rangi (1964). Vikings of the Sunrise. New Zealand: Whitcombe and Tombs Ltd. hlm. 69. ISBN 0-313-24522-3. Diakses tanggal 21 August 2010. 
  3. ^ Lynch, John; Malcolm Ross; Terry Crowley (2002). The Oceanic languages. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1128-4. OCLC 48929366. 
  4. ^ Marck, Jeff (2000), Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics
  5. ^ Pawley, Andrew, 1966, Polynesian languages: a subgrouping based upon shared innovations in morphology. Journal of the Polynesian Society 75(1):39–64. JSTOR 20704348.
  6. ^ Pawley, Andrew, 1967, The relationships of Polynesian Outlier languages. Journal of the Polynesian Society 76(3):259–296. JSTOR 20704480.
  7. ^ Wilson, William H., 1985, Evidence for an Outlier source for the Proto-Eastern-Polynesian pronominal system. Oceanic Linguistics 24(1/2):85-133. DOI:10.2307/3623064. JSTOR 3623064.
  8. ^ Marck, Jeff (2000), Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
  9. ^ Biggs, Bruce (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994) and Bruce Biggs and Ross Clark (1996), Pollex: Comparative Polynesian Lexicon (computer data base). Auckland: Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland.
  10. ^ Wilson, William H., 2012, Whence the East Polynesians? Further linguistic evidence for a Northern Outlier Source. Oceanic Linguistics 51(2):289–359. JSTOR 23321860.
  11. ^ E.g., Kirch, Patrick Vinton and Roger Green (2001) Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
    Pawley, Andrew (2009) Polynesian paradoxes: subgroups, wave models and the dialect geography of Proto Polynesian. Unpublished paper delivered at the 11th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Aussois, France.
  12. ^ Dyen, Isidore, 1965. A Lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages. International Journal of American Linguistics (Memoir 19).
  13. ^ Ross, Malcolm, 2008. The integrity of the Austronesian language family: from Taiwan to Oceania, in Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, Roger Blench, Malcolm D. Ross, Ilia Peiros and Marie Lin (ed.), Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, Great Britain, pp. 161–181.
  14. ^ Indeed Fijian, a language closely related to Polynesian, has singular, dual, paucal, and plural; and even there we may see the paucal replacing the plural in generations to come, as the paucal currently can be used for a group from 3 up to as many as 10, usually with some family, workgroup or other association.
  15. ^ Source: The Numbers List http://www.zompist.com/numbers.shtml

Further reading

References

  • Charpentier, Jean-Michel; François, Alexandre (2015). Atlas Linguistique de Polynésie Française – Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia (dalam bahasa French and English). Mouton de Gruyter & Université de la Polynésie Française. ISBN 978-3-11-026035-9. 
  • Irwin, Geoffrey (1992). The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Krupa V. (1975–1982). Polynesian Languages, Routledge and Kegan Paul
  • Lynch, J. (1998). Pacific Languages : an Introduction. University of Hawai'i Press.
  • Lynch, John, Malcolm Ross & Terry Crowley (2002). The Oceanic languages. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.
  • Marck, Jeff (2000), Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
 
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