Rasisme ilmiah

Rasisme ilmiah, kadang disebut dengan biologi ras,^[1]^[2] adalah keyakinan pseudosains bahwa terdapat bukti empiris untuk mendukung atau membenarkan rasisme (diskriminasi rasial), inferioritas ras, atau superioritas ras.^[3]^[4]^[5] Secara historis, rasisme ilmiah didukung oleh kalangan komunitas ilmiah, tetapi tidak lagi dianggap ilmiah.^[4]^[5]

Rasisme ilmiah menggunakan antropologi (terutama antropologi fisik), antropometri, kraniometri, dan disiplin pseudosains lainnya, dalam mengembangkan tipologi antropologis yang mendukung klasifikasi umat manusia ke dalam ras manusia yang terpisah secara fisik, yang mungkin dianggap lebih unggul atau lebih rendah dari ras lainnya. Rasisme ilmiah menjadi hal lumrah pada periode 1600-an sampai akhir Perang Dunia II. Sejak paruh kedua abad ke-20, rasisme ilmiah telah dikritik sebagai teori usang dan tak lagi dibahas, tetapi secara historis terus digunakan untuk mendukung atau menentang pandangan rasisme di dunia, berdasarkan pada keyakinan akan keberadaan dan signifikansi kategori ras dan hierarki ras superior dan inferior.^[6]

Setelah berakhirnya Perang Dunia II, rasisme ilmiah ditentang secara teori dan tindakan, terutama dalam pernyataan antirasisme UNESCO, "The Race Question" (1950). Untuk semua tujuan sosial yang praktis, 'ras' bukanlah fenomena biologis, melainkan mitos sosial. Mitos 'ras' telah menimbulkan kerusakan sosial dan kemanusiaan dalam jumlah sangat besar, dan menyebabkan penderitaan yang tak ternilai".^[7] "Fakta biologis ras" pada kenyataannya tidak bisa ditetapkan karena perkembangan genetika evolusi manusia menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan genetik manusia terjadi secara bertahap.^[8]^[9]

Istilah "rasisme ilmiah" umumnya digunakan secara peyoratif dalam karya modern, misalnya dalam The Bell Curve (1994). Para kritikus berpendapat bahwa karya-karya tersebut membenarkan rasisme, yang tidak didukung oleh bukti lainnya seperti hubungan antara ras dan kecerdasan.^[10] Karya-karya seperti Mankind Quarterly, ditulis secara eksplisit sebagai jurnal "sadar ras", umumnya dianggap sebagai media rasisme ilmiah dalam menerbitkan artikel mengenai interpretasi evolusi manusia, kecerdasan, etnografi, bahasa, mitologi, arkeologi, dan studi ras.

Referensi

^ Weitz, Eric D. (2015-04-27). A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (dalam bahasa Inggris). Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400866229.
^ Signer, Michael Alan (2000). Humanity at the Limit: The Impact of the Holocaust Experience on Jews and Christians. Indiana University Press. p. 202. ISBN 0253337399.
^ "Ostensibly scientific": cf. Theodore M. Porter, Dorothy Ross (eds.) 2003.The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 7, The Modern Social Sciences Cambridge University Press, p. 293 "Race has long played a powerful popular role in explaining social and cultural traits, often in ostensibly scientific terms"; Adam Kuper, Jessica Kuper (eds.), The Social Science Encyclopedia (1996), "Racism", p. 716: "This [sc. scientific] racism entailed the use of 'scientific techniques', to sanction the belief in European and American racial Superiority"; Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to Sociobiology (1998), "Race, theories of", p. 18: "Its exponents [sc. of scientific racism] tended to equate race with species and claimed that it constituted a scientific explanation of human history"; Terry Jay Ellingson, The myth of the noble savage (2001), 147ff. "In scientific racism, the racism was never very scientific; nor, it could at least be argued, was whatever met the qualifications of actual science ever very racist" (p. 151); Paul A. Erickson, Liam D. Murphy, A History of Anthropological Theory (2008), p. 152: "Scientific racism: Improper or incorrect science that actively or passively supports racism".
^ ^a ^b Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W W Norton and Co. hlm. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-393-01489-1. Few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life, few injustices deeper than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope, by a limit imposed from without, but falsely identified as lying within.
^ ^a ^b Kurtz, Paul (Sep 2004). "Can the Sciences Help Us to Make Wise Ethical Judgments?". Skeptical Inquirer. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 23 November 2007. Diakses tanggal 1 December 2007. There have been abundant illustrations of pseudoscientific theories-monocausal theories of human behavior that were hailed as "scientific"-that have been applied with disastrous results. Examples: ... Many racists today point to IQ to justify a menial role for blacks in society and their opposition to affirmative action.
^ Cf. Patricia Hill Collins, Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed., 2000), Glossary, p. 300: "Scientific racism was designed to prove the inferiority of people of color"; Simon During, Cultural studies: a critical introduction (2005), p. 163: "It [sc. scientific racism] became such a powerful idea because ... it helped legitimate the domination of the globe by whites"; David Brown and Clive Webb, Race in the American South: From Slavery to Civil Rights (2007), p. 75: "...the idea of a hierarchy of races was driven by an influential, secular, scientific discourse in the second half of the eighteenth century and was rapidly disseminated during the nineteenth century".
^ UNESCO, The Race Question, p. 8
^ Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. (2001). Genes, Peoples and Languages, p. 30. Penguin Books, London. ISBN 9780865475298.
^ Gannon, Megan (5 February 2016). "Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue". Scientific American (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 25 December 2018.
^ Tucker 2007

Bibliografi

Asséo, Henriette; Fings, Karola; Sparing, Frank; Kenrick, Donald; Heuss, Herbert (1997). From "race science" to the camps. The Gypsies During the Second World War. 1. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press. ISBN 978-0900458781.
Barkan, Elazar (1992). The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Biddiss, Michael D. (1970). Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau. New York: Weybright and Talley.
Dennis, Rutledge M. (1995). "Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race". Journal of Negro Education. 64 (3): 243–52. doi:10.2307/2967206. JSTOR 2967206.
Detterman, Douglas K. 2006. "Intelligence." Microsoft Student 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Efron, John M. (1994). Defenders of the race: Jewish doctors and race science in fin-de-siècle Europe. New Haven CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300054408.
Ehrenreich, Eric (2007). The Nazi ancestral proof: genealogy, racial science, and the final solution. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253349453.
Ewen, Stuart; Ewen, Elizabeth (2007). Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York: Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-58322-776-3.
Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton.
Gross, Paul R.; Levitt, Norman Jay (1994). Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels With Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4766-0.
Higgins, A.C. n.d. "Scientific Racism: A Review of The Science and Politics of Racial Research by William H. Tucker". Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1994. Accessed 21 October 2007.
Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mintz, Frank P (1985). The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport CT: Greenwood.
Kühl, Stefan (1994). The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lombardo, Paul A. (2002). "'The American Breed': Nazi Eugenics and the Origins of the Pioneer Fund". Albany Law Review. 65 (3): 743–830. PMID 11998853.
Murray, Charles (September 2005). "The Inequality Taboo". Commentary Magazine. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2005-09-24.
Poliakov, Leon (1974). Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York: Basic Books.
Proctor, Robert N. (1988). Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Sapp, Jan (1987). Beyond the gene: cytoplasmic inheritance and the struggle for authority in genetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195042061.
Schaffer, Gavin (2007). ""'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the Mankind Quarterly and the Question of "Race" in Science after the Second World War". Journal of American Studies. 41 (2): 253–78. doi:10.1017/S0021875807003477.
Taguieff, Pierre-André (1987). La Force du préjugé. Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles (dalam bahasa French). Paris: Gallimard, La Découverte. ISBN 978-2070719778.
Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252074639. Ringkasan (4 September 2010).
UNESCO 1950. The Race Question.
Jackson, J. (2004). "Racially stuffed shirts and other enemies of mankind: Horace Mann Bond's parody of segregationist psychology in the 1950s". Dalam Winston, A. Defining difference: Race and Racism in the History of Psychology. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. hlm. 261–283.
Neisser, U.; Boodoo, G.; Bouchard, T.J. Jr.; Boykin, A.W.; Brody, N.; Ceci, S.J.; et al. (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns" (PDF). American Psychologist. 51 (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2010-08-16. Diakses tanggal 2019-08-09.
Richards, G. (1997). Race, Racism, and Psychology: Towards a Reflexive History. New York: Routledge.
Shultz, D.P.; Shultz, S.E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology (edisi ke-9th). Belmont CA: Thomson Higher Education.
Trautmann, Thomas R. (1997), Aryans and British India, Vistaar
Tucker, W.H. (1994). The Science and Politics of Racial Research. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Walsh, Judith E. (2011), A Brief History of India, Facts On File, ISBN 978-0816081431

Bacaan lanjutan

Condit, Celeste M. (2010). Rhetorical Engagements in the Scientist's Process of Remaking Race as Genetic. The University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1299241091.
Redman, Samuel J. (2016). Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674660410.
Spiro, Jonathan P. (2009). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. University of Vermont Press. ISBN 978-1584657156. Ringkasan (29 September 2010).

Pranala luar

Links to scholarly websites about "race science" by Nizkor Project
The Problem of Human Diversity in the European Cultural Experience of the Eighteenth Century (Trieste, 14–15 February 2002)
The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist – Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist or that his views inspired the Nazis
Purves D; Augustine GJ; Fitzpatrick D; et al., ed. (2001). "Box D. Brain Size and Intelligence". Neuroscience (edisi ke-2nd). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
Reviews of Race: The Reality of Human Differences
RaceSci.org: History of Race in Science
Gardner, Dan. Race Science: When Racial Categories Make No Sense. The Globe and Mail, October 27, 1995.
Institute for the study of academic racism (ISAR)
Race, Science, and Social Policy. From Race: The Power of an Illusion. PBS.
Arthur Hu's Index of Diversity
Kenan Malik discusses race and intelligence

[1] Weitz, Eric D. (2015-04-27). A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (dalam bahasa Inggris). Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400866229.

[2] Signer, Michael Alan (2000). Humanity at the Limit: The Impact of the Holocaust Experience on Jews and Christians. Indiana University Press. p. 202. ISBN 0253337399.

[3] "Ostensibly scientific": cf. Theodore M. Porter, Dorothy Ross (eds.) 2003.The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 7, The Modern Social Sciences Cambridge University Press, p. 293 "Race has long played a powerful popular role in explaining social and cultural traits, often in ostensibly scientific terms"; Adam Kuper, Jessica Kuper (eds.), The Social Science Encyclopedia (1996), "Racism", p. 716: "This [sc. scientific] racism entailed the use of 'scientific techniques', to sanction the belief in European and American racial Superiority"; Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to Sociobiology (1998), "Race, theories of", p. 18: "Its exponents [sc. of scientific racism] tended to equate race with species and claimed that it constituted a scientific explanation of human history"; Terry Jay Ellingson, The myth of the noble savage (2001), 147ff. "In scientific racism, the racism was never very scientific; nor, it could at least be argued, was whatever met the qualifications of actual science ever very racist" (p. 151); Paul A. Erickson, Liam D. Murphy, A History of Anthropological Theory (2008), p. 152: "Scientific racism: Improper or incorrect science that actively or passively supports racism".

[SciRac_Gould-4] Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W W Norton and Co. hlm. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-393-01489-1. Few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life, few injustices deeper than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope, by a limit imposed from without, but falsely identified as lying within.

[SciRac_CSI-5] Kurtz, Paul (Sep 2004). "Can the Sciences Help Us to Make Wise Ethical Judgments?". Skeptical Inquirer. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 23 November 2007. Diakses tanggal 1 December 2007. There have been abundant illustrations of pseudoscientific theories-monocausal theories of human behavior that were hailed as "scientific"-that have been applied with disastrous results. Examples: ... Many racists today point to IQ to justify a menial role for blacks in society and their opposition to affirmative action.

[6] Cf. Patricia Hill Collins, Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed., 2000), Glossary, p. 300: "Scientific racism was designed to prove the inferiority of people of color"; Simon During, Cultural studies: a critical introduction (2005), p. 163: "It [sc. scientific racism] became such a powerful idea because ... it helped legitimate the domination of the globe by whites"; David Brown and Clive Webb, Race in the American South: From Slavery to Civil Rights (2007), p. 75: "...the idea of a hierarchy of races was driven by an influential, secular, scientific discourse in the second half of the eighteenth century and was rapidly disseminated during the nineteenth century".

[7] UNESCO, The Race Question, p. 8

[CSfrozaGPL-8] Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. (2001). Genes, Peoples and Languages, p. 30. Penguin Books, London. ISBN 9780865475298.

[9] Gannon, Megan (5 February 2016). "Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue". Scientific American (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 25 December 2018.

[Tucker07-10] Tucker 2007

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