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'''''Atala Riffo and Daughters v. Chile''''' (bahasa Indonesia: '''''Atala Riffo dan Puteri - puterinya vs Chili''''' ) adalah kasus [[Hak asasi manusia|Hak Asasi Manusia]] berupa perlakuan [[Diskriminasi|diskriminatif]] terhadap kehidupan pribadi dari keluarga Karen Atala Riffo.
{{kembangkan}}
 
{{Infobox court case
|name = Atala Riffo and Daughters v. Chile
Baris 15 ⟶ 17:
|judges = Diego García Sayán (Ketua);
 
Manuel E. Ventura Roble (Wakil Ketua);
 
Leonardo A. Franco;
Baris 36 ⟶ 38:
}}
 
'''''Atala Riffo and Daughters v. Chile''''' (bahasa Indonesia: '''''Atala Riffo dan Puteri - Puterinya vs Chili''''' ) adalah kasus pelanggaran [[hak asasi manusia]] yang dialami oleh Karen Atala Riffo, berupa pencabutan [[hak asuh anak]] atas ketiga puterinya oleh [[Mahkamah Agung Chili]] karena [[orientasi seksual]] [[lesbian]] yang dimilikinya. Kasus ini menjadi kasus pertama bagi [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] menangani perkara pemenuhan hak - hak [[LGBT]] sebagai bagian dari hak asasi manusia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atala Riffo and Daughters v Chile|url=https://iachr.lls.edu/cases/atala-riffo-and-daughters-v-chile}}</ref>
Karen Atala Riffofo adalah jaksa berkewarganegaraan [[Chili]] yang juga adalah seorang ibu [[lesbian]] dari tiga orang puterinya. Atala bercerai dari suaminya pada 2001, dan baru belakangan mendapatkan hak atas tiga puterinya, melalui kesepakatan dengan mantan suaminya.
 
Ketika Atala Riffo menyatakan diri sebagai [[lesbian]] pada 2005, mantan suaminya mengajukan gugatan hak atas anak, yang akhirnya disetujui oleh Mahkamah Agung Chili. Mahkamah memberikan hak atas anak kepada mantan suami Atala, atas pertimbangan bahwa hubungan Atala Riffo akan membahayakan pertumbuhkembangan ketiga puterinya.
 
Pengadilan Inter Amerika menyatakan bahwa negara tersebut telah melanggar [[Konvensi Amerika tentang Hak Asasi Manusia]]. Kasus ini menjadi kasus tentang hak [[LGBT]] pertama yang ditangani oleh Pengadilan Inter Amerika<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atala Riffo and Daughters v. Chile {{!}} IACHR|url=https://iachr.lls.edu/cases/atala-riffo-and-daughters-v-chile|website=iachr.lls.edu|access-date=2021-07-31}}</ref>
 
==Kronologi==
Pada 17 September 2010, ''[[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]]'' menggugat pemerintah [[Chili|Republik Chili]] berkenaan dengan kasus 12.5023.
 
Petisi awal tentang kasus tersebut telah diajukan di hadapan ''[[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]]'' pada 24 November 2004 oleh Karen Atala Riffo, dengan diwakilkan oleh jaksa -jaksa dari ''[[Asociación Gremial Libertades Públicas]]'', ''[[Clinica de Acciones de Interés Público]]'' dari [[Universitas Diego Portales]], dan ''[[Fundación Ideas]]''.
 
Pada 23 Juli 2008, Pengadilan menyetujui [[Laporan Admisibilitas]] No. 42/08, dan pada 18 Desember 2009 menyetujui Report on Merits No. 139/09, sesuai dengan artikel 50 dari Konvensi Amerika tentang Hak Asasi Manusia.
 
Pada 17 September 2010, Pengadilan menganggap bahwa Chili tidak mematuhi rekomendasi yang dimuat Merits Report. Dengan alasan itu, Pengadilan memutuskan untuk mengalihkan penanganan kasus tersebut ke yurisdiksi [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights|Pengadilan Inter - American Court of Human Rights]]. Komisi Intra Amerika menunjuk [[Komisioner]] Luz Patricia Mejía dan Sekretaris Eksekutif Santiago A. Canton sebagai delegasinya dalam kasus ini. Sementara Asisten Sekretaris Eksekutif Elizabeth Abi Mershed, Jaksa Silvia Serrano Guzmán, Jaksa Rosa Celorio, dan María Claudia Pulido, Tenaga Ahli di Sekretariat Eksekutif, ditugaskan sebagai penasihat hukum.
 
Menurut Komisi, kasus ini melibatkan dugaan tanggungjawab internasional negara terhadap perlakuan diskriminatif dan interferensi arbitrer dalam kehidupan pribadi dan keluarga yang dialami oleh Atala, yang diakibatkan oleh orientasi seksualnya, yang dalam proses hukum mengakibatkan hilangnya perhatian dan hak asuh atas ketiga puterinya, yaitu M, V, dan R.
 
Kasus ini juga melibatkan dugaan kesalahan untuk mempertimbangkan kepentingan terbaik puteri - puteri Atala, yang hak asuh dan perawatan mereka ditentukan dengan tidak memenuhi hak - hak mereka, melainkan berdasarkan prasangka yang diduga diskriminatif.
 
Komisi meminta Pengadilan untuk mendeklarasikan kasus ini sebagai pelanggaran terhadap Artikel 11 (Hak atas Privasi), Artikel 17(1) dan 17(4) (Hak - hak Keluarga), Artikel 19 (Hak - hak Anak), Artikel 24 (Hak atas Perlindungan yang Setara), dan Artikel 25 (Hak atas Perlindungan Yudisial) dari Konvensi Amerika tentang Hak Asasi Manusia.
 
Komisi juga meminta Pengadilan untuk memerintahkan Chili mengambil tindakan - tindakan ganti rugi terhadap kasus INTER-AMERICAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
 
CASE OF ATALA RIFFO AND DAUGHTERS v. CHILE
 
JUDGMENT OF FEBRUARY 24, 2012
 
(Merits, Reparations and Costs)
 
In the case of Atala Riffo and daughters,
 
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights (hereinafter, the “Inter-American Court” or the
 
“Court”) composed of the following judges1
 
<nowiki>:</nowiki>
 
Diego García-Sayán, President;
 
Manuel E. Ventura Robles, Vice-President;
 
Leonardo A. Franco, Judge;
 
Margarette May Macaulay, Judge;
 
Rhadys Abreu-Blondet, Judge;
 
Alberto Pérez Pérez, Judge;
 
Also present:
 
Pablo Saavedra Alessandri, Secretary and,
 
Emilia Segares Rodríguez, Deputy Secretary;
 
Pursuant to Articles 62(3) and 63(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights
 
(hereinafter, the “Convention” or the “American Convention”) and Articles 31, 32, 56, 57,
 
65 and 67 of the Court’s Rules of Procedure2 (hereinafter, the “Rules of Procedure”) delivers
 
this Judgment.
 
1 According to Article 19(1) of the Rules of Procedure of the Inter-American Court, applicable to this case
 
(infra note 2), which sets forth that “[i]n the cases referred to in Article 44 of the Convention, a Judge who is a
 
national of the respondent State shall not be able to participate in the hearing and deliberation of the case”, Judge
 
Vio Grossi, of Chilean nationality, did not participate in the processing of this case nor in the deliberation of this
 
Judgment.
 
2 The Rules of Procedure approved by the Court at its Eighty-fifth Regular Period of Sessions held on
 
November 16-28, 2009, apply in this case in accordance with the provisions of Article 79 of said Rules of
 
Procedure. Article 79(2) of the Rules of Procedure stipulates that“[i]n cases in which the Commission has adopted a
 
report under Article 50 of the Convention before these Rules of Procedure have come into force, the presentation of
 
the case before the Court will be governed by Articles 33 and 34 of the Rules of Procedure previously in force.
 
Statements shall be received with the aid of the Victim’s Legal Assistance Fund, and the dispositions of these Rules
 
of Procedure shall apply”. Therefore, as to the presentation of the case, Articles 33 and 34 of the Rules of
 
Procedure approved by the Court at its Forty-ninth Regular Session, shall apply..
 
2
 
I. INTRODUCTION OF THE CASE AND PURPOSE OF THE APPLICATION 4
 
II. PROCEEDING BEFORE THE COURT 5
 
III. COMPETENCE 8
 
IV. EVIDENCE 8
 
A. Documentary, Testimonial and Expert Evidence 9
 
B. Admission of Documentary Evidence 11
 
C. Admission of testimonial and expert evidence 12
 
V. RIGHT TO EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION, RIGHT TO PRIVATE LIFE,
 
RIGHT TO FAMILY LIFE, RIGHTS OF THE CHILD, RIGHT TO A FAIR TRIAL AND TO
 
JUDICIAL PROTECTION IN RELATION TO THE OBLIGATION TO RESPECT AND
 
GUARANTEE RIGHTS REGARDING THE CUSTODY PROCEEDING 13
 
A. Proven facts in relation to the custody proceedings 13
 
1) Custody proceedings 14
 
2) Provisional custody granted to the father 17
 
3) Lower court decision granting custody of the girls to Ms. Atala 18
 
4) Appeal to the Court of Appeals of Temuco and injunction granted in
 
favor of the father 20
 
5) Filing of remedy of complaint (recurso de queja) with the Supreme
 
Court of Justice and granting of second injunction in favor of the father 21
 
6) Decision of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile 21
 
B. Prior considerations 23
 
1. Prior consideration on the matter of the case before the Inter-
 
American Court 23
 
2. Prior consideration on the participation of the girls M., V. and R. 25
 
C. The right to equality and the prohibition of discrimination 26
 
1. Right to equality and non-discrimination 28
 
2. Sexual orientation as a category protected by Article 1(1) of the
 
American Convention 29
 
3. Difference in treatment based on sexual orientation 35
 
4. The principle of the child’s best interest and assumptions of risk 37
 
4.1. Alleged social discrimination 40
 
4.2. Alleged confusion of sexual roles 42
 
4.3. Alleged privilege of interests 46
 
4.4. Right to a “normal and traditional” family 49
 
4.5 Conclusion 50
 
5. Discriminatory treatment against the girls M., V. and R. 50
 
D. Right to private life and right to family life 52
 
E. Judicial guarantees and judicial protection 58
 
1. Judicial guarantees and judicial protection regarding Ms. Atala 583
 
2. Right of the girls M., V., and R. to be heard and to have their opinions
 
be taken into consideration 62
 
VI. RIGHT TO EQUALITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF NON-DISCRIMINATION,
 
RIGHT TO A PRIVATE LIFE AND RIGHT TO JUDICAL GUARANTEES
 
IN RELATION TO THE OBLIGATION TO RESPECT AND GUARANTEE RIGHTS IN
 
RELATION TO THE DISCIPLINARY INVESTIGATION 66
 
A. Facts proven regarding the disciplinary investigation against
 
Ms. Atala 67
 
B. The right to equality and the prohibition of non-discrimination 68
 
C. Right to private life 70
 
D. Judicial guarantees 71
 
VII. REPARATIONS 73
 
A. Injured Party 74
 
B. Obligation to investigate and enforce legal consequences for the
 
officials responsible 75
 
C. Other measures of full redress: satisfaction and guarantees of
 
non-repetition 76
 
1. Rehabilitation: Medical and psychological treatment for the victim 76
 
2. Satisfaction 76
 
a) Publication of the Judgment 76
 
b) Public act acknowledging international liability 77
 
3. Guarantees of non-repetition 78
 
a. Training for public officials 79
 
b. Adoption of domestic measures, reforms, and adaptation of
 
laws against discrimination 79
 
D) Compensation for pecuniary and non-pecuniary damages 82
 
1. Pecuniary damage 83
 
2. Non-pecuniary damages 85
 
E) Costs and expenses 86
 
F) Method of compliance with the payments ordered 87
 
VIII. OPERATIVE PARAGRAPHS 88
 
Judge Alberto Pérez Pérez informed the Court his Partially Dissenting Opinion
 
4
 
I.
 
INTRODUCTION OF THE CASE AND PURPOSE OF THE APPLICATION
 
1. On September 17, 2010, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
 
(hereinafter, the “Inter-American Commission” or “the Commission”) filed a claim against
 
the Republic of Chile (hereinafter, the “State” or “Chile") in relation to case 12.5023
 
. The
 
initial petition was lodged before the Inter-American Commission on November 24, 2004 by
 
Ms. Karen Atala Riffo, (hereinafter “Ms. Atala”) represented by attorneys of the Asociación
 
Gremial Libertades Públicas, Clinica de Acciones de Interés Público of Diego Portales
 
University and Fundación Ideas4
 
.
 
2. On July 23, 2008, the Commission approved Report on Admissibility No. 42/08 and
 
on December 18, 2009, it approved the Report on Merits No. 139/09, according to article 50
 
of the American Convention5
 
. On September 17, 2010, the Inter-American Commission
 
considered that the State had not complied with the recommendations made in the Merits
 
Report, for which reason it decided to submit the instant case to the jurisdiction of the
 
Inter-American Court. The Inter-American Commission appointed Commissioner Luz Patricia
 
Mejía, and Executive Secretary Santiago A. Canton as its delegates in this case. Assistant
 
Executive Secretary Elizabeth Abi-Mershed and attorneys Silvia Serrano Guzmán, Rosa
 
Celorio and María Claudia Pulido, Specialists of the Executive Secretariat of the Commission,
 
were designated to act as legal advisors.
 
3. According to the Commission, the present case concerns the alleged international
 
responsibility of the State for discriminatory treatment and arbitrary interference in the
 
private and family life suffered by Ms. Atala due to her sexual orientation, in the legal
 
process that resulted in the loss of care and custody of her daughters M., V and R. The case
 
also concerns the alleged failure to take into account the best interests of the girls, whose
 
custody and care were determined without having regard to their rights, and on the basis of
 
alleged discriminatory prejudices. The Commission requested the Court to declare the
 
violation of Articles 11 (Right to Privacy), 17(1) and 17(4) (Rights of the Family), 19 (Rights
 
of the Child), 24 (Right to Equal Protection) and 25 (Right to Judicial Protection) of the
 
Convention, in relation to article 1(1) thereof. Likewise, the Commission requested the
 
Court to order the State to adopt reparation measures.
 
3 At the request of the Inter-American Commission, the identity of the three daughters of Ms. Karen Atala
 
Riffo, shall not be disclosed. Such daughters shall be referred to as “M., V. and R.”. Moreover, at the request of the
 
representatives, in order to protect the right to private and family life of M., V. and R., the affidavits forwarded by
 
the parties and "related to the family situation" of Ms. Atala and her daughters shall not be disclosed. (Case file,
 
volume III, page 1162)
 
4 In the initial petition, Ms. Atala indicated that Fundación Ideas was represented by Francisco Estévez
 
Valencia and she appointed Verónica Undurraga Valdés, Claudio Moraga Klenner, Felipe González Morales and
 
Domingo Lovera Parmo as her representatives before the Inter-American Commission (File of appendices to the
 
petition, volume III, pages 1533 and 1572).
 
5 In Merits Report No. 139/09, the Commission concluded that the State of Chile “did violate the right of
 
Karen Atala to live free from discrimination as provided in Article 24 of the American Convention, in conjunction
 
with Article 1(1) thereof.” Moreover, “the State also violated Articles 11(2), 17(4), 19, 8(1), and 25(1) of the
 
American Convention, in conjunction with Article 1(1) thereof, with respect to the individuals identified in the
 
corresponding sections”. The Commission recommended that the State of Chile: i) "[p]rovide Karen Atala and M.,
 
V., and R. with comprehensive redress for the human rights violations that arose from the decision […] taking into
 
consideration their situation and needs” and ii) [a]dopt legislation, public policies, programs and initiatives to
 
prohibit and eradicate discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation from all spheres of public power, including
 
the administration of justice. These measures must be accompanied by adequate human and financial resources to
 
guarantee their implementation, and training/re-education programs for the public officials involved in upholding
 
those rights”. Merits Report No.139/09, Case 12.502, Karen Atala and daughters of December 18, 2009 (File of
 
appendices to the application, volume I, annex 2, pages 22 to 67).
 
5
 
4. The application was notified to the State and to the representatives on October 19,
 
2010.
 
5. On December 25, 2010, Macarena Sáez, Helena Olea and Jorge Contesse, indicating
 
that they were the representatives of Ms. Atala and her daughters M., V. and R6
 
(hereinafter, the “representatives”) filed a brief with the Court containing pleadings,
 
motions and evidence (hereinafter, “brief of pleadings and motions”) according to article 40
 
of the Court's Rules of Procedure7
 
. The representatives indicated that they agreed in full
 
with the facts presented in the application and asked the Court to declare the international
 
responsibility of the State for the violation of articles 11 (Right to Private and Family Life),
 
17 (Right to a Family), 19 (Rights of the Child), 24 (Right to Equality) and 25 (Judicial
 
Protection) of the Convention, in relation to article 1(1) thereof. In consequence, they
 
requested that the Court order several reparation measures.
 
6. On March 11, 2011, Chile filed with the Court a brief containing its response to the
 
application and the observations to the brief of pleadings and motions (hereinafter, “brief of
 
response”). In said brief, the State contested all the claims presented by the Commission
 
and the representatives and denied its international responsibility for the alleged violations
 
of the American Convention. In relation to the measures of reparation requested by the
 
Commission and the representatives, the State requested that the Court dismiss the claim
 
in its entirety. The State appointed Mr. Miguel Angel González and Ms. Paulina González
 
Vergara as Agents.
 
II
 
PROCEEDING BEFORE THE COURT
 
7. Through a Decision issued on July 7, 20118
 
, the President of the Court ordered the
 
receipt of various statements in this case. Likewise, he summoned the parties to a public
 
hearing, which was held on August 23 and 24, 2011, during the 92nd regular session of the
 
Court, in the city of Bogota, Colombia9
 
.
 
6 As mentioned subsequently (infra paras. 12, 13 and 67 to 71), regarding the representation of the girls
 
M., V. and R., in the Decision of November 29, 2011 the Court noted that the file contained no specific statements
 
by the girls M., V. and R. as to whether they agreed to be represented by either one of their parents and whether
 
they wished to be considered as alleged victims in this case. Accordingly, a judicial proceeding was held to directly
 
hear the daughters M. and R (infra para. 13).
 
7 Ms. Karen Atala Riffo appointed Macarena Sáez from the organization “Libertades Públicas A.G”, Helena
 
Olea from “Corporación Humanas, Centro Regional de Derechos Humanos y Justicia de Género” and Jorge Contesse
 
from “Centro de Derechos Humanos de la Universidad Diego Portales”, as her representatives.
 
8 See Case of Atala Riffo and daughters V. Chile. Order of the President of the Inter-American Court of
 
Human Rights of July 7, 2011. Available at: <nowiki>http://corteidh.or.cr/docs/asuntos/atala_21_08_11.pdf</nowiki>
 
The representatives requested a modification in the format of two statements, which was accepted by the full
 
Court. See Case of Atala Riffo and daughters V. Chile. Order of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of
 
August 21, 2011.Available at: <nowiki>http://corteidh.or.cr/docs/asuntos/atala_21_08_11.pdf</nowiki>
 
9 The following persons attended this hearing: a) on behalf of the Inter-American Commission:
 
Commissioner Rodrigo Escobar Gil and legal advisors Silvia Serrano and Rosa Celorio; b) on behalf of the
 
representatives: Helena Olea Rodríguez, Macarena Sáez Torres, Jorge Contesse Singh, José Ignacio Escobar Opazo,
 
Francisco Cox Vial and Catalina Lagos Tschorne, and c) on behalf of the State: Agents Miguel Ángel González
 
Morales and Paulina González Vergara; Gustavo Ayares Ossandón, Ambassador of Chile to Colombia; Ricardo
 
Hernández Menéndez, Adviser of the Chilean Embassy in Colombia;; Milenko Bertrand-Galindo Arriagada, Felipe
 
Bravo Allende and Alberto Vergara Arteaga.
 
6
 
8. On August 18, September 6 and October 18, 2011, Mr. Reinaldo Bustamante Alarcón
 
forwarded several communications on behalf of Jaime López Allendes, father of the girls M.,
 
V. and R., in relation to this case. In said briefs, the following requests were made: i)
 
participation of the minors and legal representation by their father in the proceeding before
 
the Inter-American Court; ii) request to include an intervener in the proceeding; iii) request
 
to annul the proceedings before the Commission and the Court and iv) request to
 
collaborate with the State’s brief.
 
9. On November 30, 2011, the Secretariat sent a note to Mr. Bustamante, following the
 
instructions of the full Court, in reply to the briefs submitted (supra para. 8). The note
 
indicated that: i) in a Decision issued on November 29, 2011 the Court ordered, as evidence
 
to facilitate adjudication of the case, that the three girls must be informed of their right to
 
be personally heard by the Court (infra paras. 12 and 13); ii) the Court is not competent to
 
address requests made by individuals or organizations other than the alleged victims
 
participating in the proceedings of a case before the Court; iii) the Court does not find
 
irregularities in the manner in which notice of this case was served and iv) given that Mr.
 
López is not a party to this case and that his participation as a third intervener has not been
 
accepted, he does not have legal standing to present arguments as to the merits or
 
evidence10.
 
10. Furthermore, the Court received the amici curiae briefs from: 1) the National
 
Association of Judges of Chile [Asociación Nacional de Magistrados del Poder Judicial de
 
Chile]11; 2) the Ombudsgay organization12; 3) Mr. José Pedro Silva Prado, a professor of
 
Procedural Law and President of the Chilean Institute of Procedural Law; 4) Mr. José Ignacio
 
Martínez Estay, a professor of the Jean Monnet Program, an initiative of the European
 
Union, of the University of Los Andes, Chile; 5) the Human Rights Group [Nucleo Derechos
 
Humanos] of the Law Department of the Pontificia Universidad Católica of Río de Janeiro13;
 
6) Mr. Diego Freedman, a professor at the School of Law of the University of Buenos Aires;
 
7) Ms. María Inés Franck, President of Asociación Civil Nueva Política and Mr. Jorge Nicolás
 
Lafferriere, Director of Centro de Bioética, Persona and Familia; 8) the Research Seminary
 
on Family and Individual Law, of the Law School of the Pontificia Universidad Católica of
 
Argentina14; 9) Mr. Luis A. González Placencia, President of the Human Rights Commission
 
of the Federal District and Mr. José Luis Caballero Ochoa, Coordinator of the Human Rights
 
Master’s Program of the Ibero-American University; 10) Ms. Úrsula C. Basset, a professor
 
10 Notwithstanding the foregoing, the Court confirmed that the evidence furnished by Mr. Bustamante,
 
concerning psychological expert opinions on the three girls and statements rendered by several people, were
 
forwarded by the parties as appendices to their main briefs, which included a copy of the main documents of the
 
custody proceeding.
 
11 The brief was presented by Mr. Leopoldo Llanos Sagristá, Minister of the Appeals Court of Temuco, Chile
 
and President of the National Association of Judges of Chile [Asociación Nacional de Magistrados del Poder Judicial
 
de Chile].
 
12 The brief was presented by Ms. Geraldina González de la Vega, Legal Adviser and Mr. Alejandro Juarez
 
Zepeda, General Coordinator.
 
13 The brief was filed by Ms. Marcia Nina Bernardes, Professor at the Law Department and Coordinator of
 
Nucleo de Derechos Humanos of Pontificia Universidad Católica of Rio of Janeiro; Andrea Schettini, Luiza Athayde,
 
Maria Fernanda Marques, Isabella Benevides, Isabella Maioli, Julia Rosa, Juliana Streva, Karen Oliveira and Maria
 
Eduarda Vianna; and Mr. Felipe Saldanha.
 
14 The brief was filed by Mr. Jorge Nicolás Laferriere and Ms. Úrsula C. Basset, Co-Directors of the Seminary.
 
7
 
and researcher at the University of Buenos Aires15; 11) Ms. Judith Butler, professor of the
 
Maxine Elliot Program at the University of California, at Berkeley; 12) Mr. Alejandro Romero
 
Seguel and Ms. Maite Aguirrezabal Grünstein, Doctors of Law at Navarra University and
 
Procedural Law professors; 13) Mr. Carlos Álvarez Cozzi, Professor of Private Law at the
 
Economic Sciences and Administration School and Associate Professor of Private
 
International Law at the Law School of the University of the Republic of Uruguay; 14) Mr.
 
James J. Silk, Director of Allard K. Lowenstein, Legal Clinic on Human Rights, of Yale
 
University Law School; 15) Ms. María Sara Rodríguez Pinto, Doctor of Law at the
 
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and Professor of Civil Law; 16) Ms. Natalia Gherardi,
 
Executive Director of the Equipo Latinoamericano de Justicia and Género, and Ms. Josefina
 
Durán, Director of that organization’s Law Department; 17) Ms. Laura Clérico, Ms. Liliana
 
Ronconi, Mr. Gustavo Beade and Mr. Martín Aldao, professors and researchers at the
 
University of Buenos Aires Law School; 18) Messrs. Carlo Casini, Antonio Gioacchino
 
Spagnolo and Joseph Meaney16; 19) from the Chancellor and some members of the
 
Universidad Católica Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo17; 20) Ms. María del Pilar Vásquez Calva,
 
Coordinator of Enlace Gubernamental de Vida and Familia A.C.; 21) Ms. Suzanne B.
 
Goldberg and Mr. Michael Kavey, lawyers at Sexuality & Gender Law Clinic of Columbia
 
University and Ms. Adriana T. Luciano, an attorney at Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton &
 
Garrisson LLP; 22) Ms. Elba Nuñez Ibáñez, Gabriela Filoni, Jeannette Llaja and Mr. Gastón
 
Chillier18; Mr. 23) Mr. Brent McBurney and Mr. Bruce Abramson, attorneys at Advocates
 
International; 24) Ms. Gail English, President of Lawyers Christian Fellowship, and Ms.
 
Shirley Richards; 25) Colombia Diversa and Centro de Derechos Humanos y Litigio
 
Internacional19; 26) Messrs. Piero A. Tozzi and Brian W. Raum of Alliance Defense Fund; 27)
 
Mr. Jorge Rafael Scala, Professor of the postgraduate program on Human Development at
 
the Universidad Libre Internacional de las Américas and Honorary Professor at Universidad
 
Ricardo Palma; 28) the Center for Global Justice, Human Rights and the Rule of Law [Centro
 
para la Justicia Global, los Derechos Humanos y el Estado de Derecho] of the Law School at
 
15 Ms. Ursula C. Basset is a member of the Board of Directors of the International Academy for the Study of
 
Jurisprudence on Family [Academia International para la Jurisprudencia sobre la Family] and the Board of Directors
 
of the International Society of Family Law.
 
16 Mr. Carlo Casini is a member of the European Parliament, President of the Constitutional Affairs
 
Commission of the European Parliament and President of the Italian Pro-Life Movement. Mr. Antonio Gioacchino
 
Spagnolo is a professor of Bioethics and Director of the Bioethics Institute of the Catholic University of the Sacred
 
Heart in Rome. Mr. Joseph Meaney is the director of international coordination at Human Life International.
 
17 The brief was signed by Mr. Hugo Calienes Bedoya, Chancellor and Director of the Institute of Bioethics at
 
USAT, and by Mr. Carlos Tejeda Lombardi, Director of the USAT Law School, Mr. Rafael Santa Maria D’Angelo,
 
Coordinator of the Department of History and Philosophy of Law, Mr. Javier Colina Seminario, legal adviser at
 
USAT, Ms. Rosa Sánchez Barragán, Coordinator of the Department of Civil Law, Ms. Erika Valdivieso López, Dean of
 
the Faculty of Law of USAT, Ms. Angelica Burga Coronel, Professor of Legal Protection of Rights, Ms. Ana María
 
Olguín Britto, Director of the Science Institute for Marriage and the Family of USAT and Ms. Tania Díaz Delgado, all
 
professors of the Law School and the Science Institute for Marriage and the Family of the Catholic University of
 
Santo Toribio of Mongrovejo.
 
18 Ms. Elba Nuñez Ibañez is the Regional Coordinator of the Latin American and Caribbean Committee for the
 
Defense of Women’s Rights (CLADEM). Ms. Gabriela Filoni is responsible for the Litigation Support Program of the
 
Latin American and Caribbean Committee for the Defense of Women’s Rights (CLADEM). Ms. Jeannette Llaja is a
 
member of the Latin American and Caribbean Committee for the Defense of Women’s Rights of Peru. Mr. Gaston
 
Chillier is the Executive Director of the Center of Legal and Social Studies.
 
19 The brief was filed by Ms. Marcela Sánchez Buitrago, Executive Director of Colombia Diversa, and Mr.
 
Mauricio Noguera Rojas and Mr. Santiago Medina Villareal, on behalf of Colombia Diversa; and Ms. Viviana
 
Bohórquez Monsalve, on behalf of Human Rights and International Litigation Center [Centro de Derechos Humanos
 
y Litigio Internacional].
 
8
 
Regent University20; 29) Mr. Álvaro Francisco Amaya Villareal, Ms. Bárbara Mora Martínez
 
and Ms. Carolina Restrepo Herrera; 30) Ms. Lisa Davis, Ms. Jessica Stern, Ms. Dorothy L.
 
Fernández, Ms. Megan C. Kieffer, Ms. Rachel M. Wertheimer, Ms. Erin I. Herlihy, and Mr.
 
Justin D. Hoogs21; 31) Ms. Andrea Minichiello Williams, Ms. Ruth Ross and Mr. Mark Mudri22;
 
and 32) the Department of Sexual and Reproductive Rights of the Program on Health
 
Rights, Division of Legal Studies of the Center for Economic Research and Education [Área
 
de Derechos Sexuales and Reproductivos del Programa de Right to Salud, División de
 
Estudios Jurídicos del Centro de Investigación and Docencia Económicas23.
 
11. On September 24, 2011, the representatives and the State forwarded their final
 
arguments and the Inter-American Commission presented its final written observations on
 
this case. Moreover, on that occasion, the parties answered the questions prepared by the
 
judges as well as the requests by the Court for evidence to facilitate adjudication of the
 
case. These briefs were forwarded to the parties, to whom the Court gave an opportunity to
 
present any observations deemed pertinent.
 
12. On November 29, 2011, the Court issued a Decision in which it ordered, as evidence
 
to facilitate adjudication of the case, that the three girls M., V. and R., be informed of their
 
right to be heard by the Court and of the consequences arising from the exercise of that
 
right, so that they could express their wishes in that regard24.
 
13. On February 8, 2012, the Secretariat of the Inter-American Court held a hearing in
 
Santiago de Chile in which the girls M. and R. participated. For reasons of force majeure the
 
girl V. was not present at the hearing. During said hearing the girls made several
 
observations in relation to the case, which are of a confidential nature (infra paras. 67 to
 
71).
 
14. On February 16, 2012, the record of the above mentioned proceedings was
 
communicated to the parties. 25
 
20 The brief was filed by Ms. Lynne Marie Kohm, on behalf of the Center for Global Justice, Human Rights and
 
the Rule of Law of the Law School at Regent University.
 
21 The brief was filed by Ms. Lisa Davis, Clinical Professor of Law, of the International Women’s Human Rights
 
Clinic at the City University of New York Law School; Ms. Jessica Stern, of the International Gay and Lesbian
 
Human Rights Commission; and Dorothy L. Fernández, Justin D. Hoogs, Megan C. Kieffer, Rachel M. Wertheimer
 
and Erin I. Herlihy, of Morrison & Foerster LLP. Other participant in the brief include Amnesty International; ARC
 
International; Center for Constitutional Rights; the Council for Global Equality; Human Rights Watch; Lawyers for
 
Children Inc; Legal Aid Society of New York; Legal Momentum; MADRE; Centro Nacional de Derechos Lésbicos;
 
Iniciativa Nacional de Derechos Económicos y Sociales; the New York City Bar Association; Women’s Link
 
Worldwide and the Consultoría para los Derechos Humanos y el Desplazamiento (CODHES).
 
22 Ms. Andrea Minichiello Williams is the Director General of the Christian Legal Center/Christian Legal
 
Fellowship. Ms. Ruth Ross is the Executive Director of the Christian Legal Fellowship. Mr. Mark Mudri is the Regional
 
Facilitator of Advocates Oceania.
 
23 The brief was filed by Ms. Estefania Vela Barba and Mr. Alejandro Madrazo Lajous, of the Sexual and
 
Reproductive Rights Area of the Program on Health Rights of the Legal Studies Division of the Center for Economic
 
Research and Teaching.
 
24 Case of Atala Riffo and daughters V. Chile. Order of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of
 
November 29, 2011. Available at: <nowiki>http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/asuntos/atala_29_11_111.pdf</nowiki>
 
25 In a brief filed on February 23, 2012, the State submitted its observations regarding the confidentiality of
 
the aforementioned record of proceedings.
 
 
9
 
III
 
COMPETENCE
 
15. The Inter- American Court has jurisdiction over this case in accordance with Article
 
62(3) of the American Convention, given the fact that Chile has been a State Party to the
 
American Convention since August 21, 1990 and accepted the binding jurisdiction of the
 
Court on that same date.
 
IV
 
EVIDENCE
 
16. Based on the provisions of Articles 46, 49 and 50 of the Rules of Procedure, as well
 
as on the Court’s case law regarding evidence and assessment thereof26, the Court shall
 
now examine and assess the documentary evidence forwarded by the parties at the
 
different procedural stages, the statements of the alleged victim, the testimonies and expert
 
opinions rendered by affidavit and at the public hearing before the Court, as well as
 
evidence to facilitate adjudication of the case. In doing so, the Court shall adhere to the
 
principles of sound judgment, within the applicable legal framework27.
 
A. Documentary, Testimonial and Expert Evidence
 
17. The Court received the affidavits rendered by the following seven expert witnesses
 
and six witnesses :
 
a) Stefano Fabeni, an expert witness proposed by the Commission, Director of
 
the program on the LGTBI community (Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and
 
intersexual people) of the Global Rights Organization, who rendered an expert
 
opinion regarding: i) the legislative and other types of measures that a State must
 
adopt to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation in the exercise of public
 
power, and in particular, in the judiciary and ii) the different elements that must be
 
taken into account when formulating and applying public policies to eradicate and
 
prevent discriminatory prejudices based on sexual orientation in that sphere;
 
b) Leonor Etcheberry, an expert witness proposed by the representatives, a
 
lawyer and professor of Family Law at Diego Portales University in Chile, who
 
rendered an expert opinion on: “the manner in which custody proceedings are
 
reviewed and decided under Chilean law and its connection with the way in which the
 
proceeding [...] by the Judge in the Atala Riffo case was carried out";
 
c) Fabiola Lathrop, an expert witness proposed by the representatives, a lawyer
 
and Professor of Family Law at the University of Chile, who rendered an expert
 
opinion on: concepts related to custody in Chile and in comparative law, with an
 
emphasis on discrimination based on sexual orientation;
 
 
26 See Case of the “White Van” (Paniagua Morales et al) v. Guatemala. Reparations and Legal Costs.
 
Judgment of May 25, 2001. Series C No. 76, para. 50 and Case of Chocrón Chocrón v. Venezuela. Preliminary
 
Objections, Merits, Reparations and Legal Costs. Judgment of July 1, 2011. Series C Nº. 227, para. 26.
 
27 See Case of the “White Van" (Paniagua Morales et al) v. Guatemala, Merits. Judgment of March 8, 1998.
 
Series C, Nº 37, para. 76; and Case of Chocrón Chocrón, supra note 13, para. 26.
 
10
 
d) Miguel Cillero, an expert witness proposed by the representatives, a professor
 
of Law at Diego Portales University in Chile, who rendered an expert opinion on: the
 
treatment of the principle of the best interests of the child under International Law;
 
e) Monica Pinto, an expert witness proposed by the representatives, a law
 
professor and dean at the Law School of the University of Buenos Aires, who
 
rendered an expert opinion on: the development of international human rights law in
 
relation to non-discrimination and the treatment of sexual orientation as a suspect
 
category;
 
f) Maria Alicia Espinoza Abarzúa, an expert witness proposed by the
 
representatives, a child and adolescent psychiatrist, who rendered an expert opinion
 
on: the alleged mental damage caused and the alleged need for therapy of the
 
daughters of Ms. Atala Riffo;
 
g) Claudia Figueroa Morales, an expert witness proposed by the representatives,
 
an adult psychiatrist, who rendered an expert opinion on: i) the mental health and
 
alleged impact on the life plan of Ms. Atala Riffo as a result of the custody
 
proceedings and ii) Ms. Atala Riffo’s alleged need for psychiatric support in the
 
future;
 
h) Juan Pablo Olmedo, a witness proposed by the representatives, who made a
 
statement regarding: the alleged interference with the private life of Ms. Atala during
 
the custody proceedings in which he acted as her lawyer;
 
i) Sergio Vera Atala, a witness proposed by the representatives, who made a
 
statement regarding: the alleged impact on his family life, on his mother’s life, on
 
Ms. Atala Riffo and on the lives of his sisters as a result of the legal proceedings in
 
Chile;
 
j) María del Carmen Riffo Véjar, a witness proposed by the representatives, who
 
made a statement regarding: the alleged impact that the decision of the Supreme
 
Court of Chile had on her family life, on her daughter's life, on Ms. Atala Riffo and on
 
her granddaughters;
 
k) Judith Riffo Véjar, a witness proposed by the representatives, who made a
 
statement regarding: the alleged impact that the decision of the Supreme Court of
 
Chile had on her family life, on her niece’s life, on Ms. Atala Riffo and on her grand
 
nieces;
 
l) Elías Atala Riffo, a witness proposed by the representatives, who made a
 
statement regarding: the alleged impact that the decision of the Supreme Court of
 
Chile has had on his family life, on his sister's life, on Ms. Atala Riffo and on his
 
nieces; and
 
m) Emma De Ramón, a witness proposed by the representatives, who made a
 
statement regarding: the process experienced by the family of Ms. Atala during the
 
custody proceedings and after the judgment issued by the Supreme Court of Chile.
 
18. As to the evidence produced at the public hearing, the Court heard the statements of
 
the alleged victim and five expert witnesses:
 
11
 
a) Karen Atala Riffo, the alleged victim proposed by the representatives, who
 
made a statement regarding: i) the alleged violation of her rights from the beginning
 
of the custody proceeding of her daughters and ii) the alleged impact of the decision
 
issued by the Supreme Court of Chile on her personal and family life;
 
b) Juan Carlos Marín, an expert witness proposed by the representatives, a
 
Chilean lawyer and professor of Civil Law at the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo of
 
Mexico, who rendered an expert opinion regarding: the use of the recurso de queja
 
(remedy of complaint) and its exceptional use;
 
c) Robert Warren Wintemute, an expert witness proposed by the
 
representatives, Professor of Human Rights at King’s College London, who rendered
 
an expert opinion regarding: the status of International Law regarding discrimination
 
based on sexual orientation, with emphasis on the European Human Rights System;
 
d) Rodrigo Uprimny, an expert witness proposed by the Commission, an expert
 
on the right to equality and non-discrimination, who rendered an expert opinion
 
regarding: i) international human rights standards related to sexual orientation and
 
their links with the rights to equality, non-discrimination and private life and ii) the
 
treatment of sexual orientation under international law as a prohibited criterion for
 
discrimination, and as an aspect of a person’s private life and the relevant case law
 
in the universal human rights system, in other regional systems and in comparative
 
law;
 
e) Allison Jernow, an expert witness proposed by the Commission, a lawyer with
 
the International Commission of Jurists and coordinator of the project on sexual
 
orientation and gender identity, who rendered an expert opinion regarding: i) the
 
use of sexual orientation as a factor in judicial decisions regarding custody, in light of
 
international human rights standards in the matter of equality, non-discrimination
 
and private and family life; and ii) the relationship between the standards of
 
international human rights law and custody issues in the present case, and
 
f) Emilio García Mendez, an expert witness proposed by the Commission, an
 
international adviser on the rights of the child, who rendered an expert opinion on: i)
 
international standards on the human rights of children applicable to cases related to
 
care and custody; ii) the way in which the best interests of children and their right to
 
participate and be heard in procedures concerning them, must be reflected in the
 
practice of the judicial authorities who decide such cases and iii) the harm caused to
 
the child’s best interests when discriminatory prejudices are applied in such
 
decisions.
 
B. Admission of Documentary Evidence
 
19. In the case at hand, as in many other cases28, the Court admits the evidentiary
 
value of such documents timely forwarded by the parties, which have not been disputed or
 
challenged, or their authenticity questioned, only insofar as these are pertinent and useful
 
to determine the facts and their possible legal consequences.
 
 
28 Cf. Case of Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras. Merits. Judgment of July 29, 1988. Series C No. 4, para.
 
140; and Case of Fontevecchia and D`Amico v. Argentina. Merits, Reparations and Legal Costs. Judgment of
 
November 29, 2011. Series C Nº. 238, para. 13.
 
12
 
20. As to the newspaper articles submitted, this Court has considered that these may be
 
assessed when they refer to well-known public facts or statements by State officials, or
 
when they corroborate aspects related to the case. 29 Therefore, the Court decides to admit
 
those newspaper articles that are complete, or at least those whose source and publication
 
date can be verified, and shall assess them according to the body of evidence, the
 
observations of the parties and the rules of sound judgment.
 
21. As to some of the documents referred to by the parties by means of their electronic
 
links, the Court has established that if a party provides at least the direct electronic link to
 
the document cited as evidence, and it is possible to access this document, the legal
 
certainty and the procedural balance will not be affected, because its location is immediately
 
available to the Court and to the other parties30. In this case, no opposition or observations
 
were expressed by the other parties regarding the content and authenticity of the
 
documents.
 
22. Furthermore, together with the final written arguments, the representatives and the
 
State forwarded various documents as evidence, which were requested by the Court based
 
on the terms stipulated in Article 58(b) of the Court’s Rules of Procedure, and the parties
 
had the opportunity to present any observations deemed pertinent. The Court admits said
 
documents as evidence. These will be assessed taking into consideration the body of
 
evidence, the observations of the parties and the rules of sound judgment.
 
23. Following the public hearing, written versions of the expert opinions rendered by
 
Juan Carlos Marín, Robert Warren Wintemute and Allison Jernow at the public hearing in
 
this case were forwarded. These statements were also conveyed to the other parties. The
 
Court admits these documents insofar as they refer to the purpose duly specified by the
 
President of the Court for such expert opinions (supra para. 18), considering these are
 
useful for the present case and that there were no objections, nor was their authenticity or
 
veracity challenged.
 
C. Admission of testimonial and expert evidence
 
24. As to the statements rendered before a notary public and those made at the public
 
hearing, the Court admits these, considering they are relevant inasmuch as they relate to
 
the purpose defined by the President of the Court in the Order requiring them (supra paras.
 
17 and 18). These statements shall be assessed in the appropriate chapter, together with
 
the entire body of evidence, taking into account the observations made by the parties31.
 
25. According to the case-law of this Court, the statements made by the alleged victims
 
cannot be assessed separately but as part of the entire body of evidence in the proceedings,
 
since they are useful insofar as they may provide more information on the alleged violations
 
and their consequences32. Based on the foregoing, the Court admits the statement made by
 
29 Cf. Case of Velásquez Rodríguez, supra note 28, para. 146 and Case of Fontevecchia and D`Amico, supra
 
note 28, para. 14.
 
30 Cf. Case of Escué Zapata v. Colombia. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of July 4, 2007. Series C
 
Nº. 165, para. 26; Case of Radilla Pacheco v. Mexico, supra note 12, para. 86; and Case of Chitay Nech et al. v.
 
Guatemala. Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Legal Costs. Judgment of May 25, 2010. Series C No.
 
212, para. 54. 31 Cf. Case Loayza Tamayo v. Peru. Merits. Judgment of September 17, 1997. Series C No. 33, para. 43 and
 
Case of Barrios Family v. Venezuela. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of November 24, 2011. Series C No.
 
238, para. 25.
 
13
 
the alleged victim, Karen Atala, which shall be assessed according to the aforementioned
 
criterion.
 
26. Furthermore, regarding the expert witnesses, the State made several observations
 
based on, in general: a) its disagreement with the content of some of the expert opinions,
 
contradicting or giving its opinion regarding such reports; b) the scope of the statements of
 
the expert witnesses in relation to the purpose of the expert opinion, which, on occasion,
 
the State considers to be biased or merely personal observations; c) some elements used to
 
render such an opinion and d) the methodology used to render some of the opinions.
 
27. The Court considers it pertinent to point out that, unlike witnesses, who should avoid
 
giving personal opinions, expert witnesses may offer technical or personal opinions as long
 
as these are related to their special knowledge or experience. In addition, experts may refer
 
both to specific matters of the case or any other relevant point of the litigation, provided
 
that these concern the purpose for which they were convened and the conclusions are well
 
founded33. As to observations concerning the content of the expert opinions, the Court finds
 
that such observations do not challenge their admissibility, but seek to question their
 
evidentiary value, for which reason these shall be considered, if pertinent, in the relevant
 
chapters of this Judgment.
 
28. In particular, regarding the observations made by the State about the alleged “lack
 
of objectivity and the personal considerations” made by expert witness Espinoza, which fall
 
outside the purpose for which she was summoned, the Court shall consider the State’s
 
observation and repeats that it shall admit only those statements that serve the purpose
 
duly stipulated (supra para. 17). Regarding the methodology of the expert report of Ms.
 
Espinoza, notwithstanding the objection made by the State, the Court notes that, in said
 
report, there is an explanation of the procedure followed. Expert witness Espinoza pointed
 
out that she based her report on the meetings held with the López Atala girls and their
 
mother, as well as on various precedents. The Court considers that the objections to the
 
method used by the expert witness, which stem from the report itself, do not affect its
 
admissibility.
 
V
 
RIGHT TO EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION, RIGHT TO PRIVATE LIFE,
 
RIGHT TO FAMILY LIFE, RIGHTS OF THE CHILD, RIGHT TO A FAIR TRIAL
 
AND TO JUDICIAL PROTECTION IN RELATION TO THE OBLIGATION TO
 
RESPECT AND GUARANTEE RIGHTS REGARDING THE CUSTODY PROCEEDING
 
29. Firstly, the Court considers it necessary to emphasize that the purpose of the present
 
case is not to determine whether the mother or the father offered the three girls a better
 
home (infra paras. 64 to 66). In this case, the dispute between the parties concerns two
 
aspects: i) the custody suit filed by the father of the girls and ii) the disciplinary proceeding
 
conducted against Ms. Atala. This chapter focuses on the debates surrounding the custody
 
trial. In a subsequent chapter, the disciplinary proceeding will be analyzed.
 
A. Proven facts in relation to the custody proceedings
 
32 Cf. Case of Loayza Tamayo, supra note 31, para 43 and Case of Chocrón Chocrón, supra note 26, para 34.
 
33 Cf. Case of Reverón Trujillo v. Venezuela. Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Legal Costs.
 
Judgment of June 30, 2009. Series C N° 197, para. 42; and Case of Barrios Family, supra note 31, para 28.
 
14
 
30. On March 29, 1993, Ms. Atala married Ricardo Jaime López Allendes34. Her
 
daughters, M., V., and R. were born in 1994, 1998, and 1999, respectively35. Ms. Atala has
 
an older son, Sergio Vera Atala, who was born of a previous marriage. In March 2002, Ms.
 
Atala and Mr. López Allendes decided to end their marriage through a de facto separation.
 
As part of the dissolution of their marriage, they established by mutual consent that Ms.
 
Atala would maintain the care and custody of the three girls in the city of Villarica, with
 
weekly visits to the home of their father in Temuco36. In November 2002, Ms. Emma de
 
Ramón, the partner of Ms. Atala, began living in the same house with Ms. Atala, her three
 
daughters and her eldest son37.
 
1) Custody proceedings38
 
31. On January 14, 2003, the father of the three girls filed a custody suit with the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarrica, considering that “the physical and emotional development [of
 
the girls] was seriously at risk” should they continue to live in the care of their mother. In
 
the suit, Mr. López argued that Ms. Atala “[was] not capable of watching over and caring for
 
[the three girls, given that] her new sexual lifestyle choice, together with her cohabiting in a
 
lesbian relationship with another woman, [were] producing […] harmful consequences for
 
the development of these minors …” since the mother [had] not shown any concern for
 
caring and protecting [...] the development of the girl[s]." In addition, Mr. López argued
 
that “[to] treat as normal, within the legal order, partners of the same sex [leads] to distort
 
the meaning of a human couple, man and woman, and therefore, alters the natural meaning
 
of the family, [...] since it affects the fundamental values of the family, as the core unit of
 
society”; therefore, the “sexual choice made by the mother w[ould] disrupt the healthy, fair
 
and normal coexistence to which [M., V. and R.] have a right.” Finally, Mr. López argued
 
that “[i]t would be necessary to take into account all the consequences of a biological
 
nature that would be implied for minors living with a lesbian couple [;] in fact, solely in
 
terms of diseases, given the sexual practices of a lesbian couple, the girls are [would be]
 
34 Cf. Marriage certificate of September 22, 2011 (case record, volume XII, page 5926).
 
35 Cf. Psychological Reports on M., V., and R., of November 15, 2002 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, appendix 23, pages 2680, 2683 and 2686).
 
36 Cf. Decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of October 29, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, appendix 12, page 2581).
 
37 In this regard, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica established that “in June 2002 [Ms. Atala] began a
 
relationship with [Ms.] Emma of Ramón [,] who since November 2002 work [ed] as the coordinator of the regional
 
archive of Araucanía in the town of Temuco [and therefore, move[d] into the common home and join [ed] the
 
nuclear family.” Judgment of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica on October 29, 2003 (File of appendices to the
 
application, volume V, appendix 12, page 2582).
 
38 The system for the custody of minors in Chile is governed by Article 225 of the Civil Code, which provides
 
that: “If the parents live separately, the mother shall see to the personal care of the children. Nonetheless, through
 
a public document, or document issued before any official of the Civil Registry, with an entry on the margin of the
 
child’s birth record within thirty days of the granting thereof, both parties may, by mutual agreement, determine
 
that the personal care of one or more children falls to the father. This agreement may be revoked, following the
 
same formalities. Be that as it may, when necessary to protect the interests of the child, whether because of
 
mistreatment, neglect, or another just cause, the judge may transfer the care of the child to the other parent But it
 
would not entrust the personal care of the child to a parent who had not contributed, while she or he could, to the
 
upkeep of the child while the child was in the custody of the other parent. As long as an amendment related to the
 
personal care is not annulled by a subsequent one, any agreement or resolution is unenforceable to third parties.”
 
Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
V, page 2671)
 
15
 
under constant risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases such as herpes and AIDS”
 
39.
 
32. On January 28, 2003, Ms. Atala responded to the custody suit filed by Mr.
 
López, expressing “the sadness it has caused me to read the libelous allegations and the
 
manner in which what our family life was and, what is today my private life, were described
 
and judged.” Ms. Atala alleged that its text and tone “affected her due to its aggressiveness,
 
prejudice, discrimination, ignorance of the right to homosexual identity, the distortion of the
 
facts it expresses and, finally, its disdain for the best interest of [her] daughters.” She also
 
asserted that “the allegations made regarding [her] sexual identity have nothing to do with
 
[her] function and role as a mother, and consequently, should remain outside the suit, in
 
that issues of connubial relations and sexual choice do not extend to parental relationships,
 
which are the subject of the proceeding.” Finally, Ms. Atala argued that neither the Chilean
 
Civil Code nor the law on minors consider a “different sexual choice” as being grounds for
 
“disqualification as a parent” 40.
 
33. On January 28, 2003, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica ordered “discovery” for
 
which it decided to establish the following items as “substantial, pertinent and disputed
 
facts”: i) “grounds for qualification and disqualification of parents to have custody of the
 
minors” and ii) the “environment offered by the parents to the minors”. Also, the court
 
decided to set a date for a hearing and request, inter alia, the following items of evidence: i)
 
“psychological report on both parties and on the minors"; ii) “psychiatric report on both
 
parties”; iii) to hear “the minors in question at a private hearing”; iv) “complete socio-
 
economic report of the respondent and the minors” and v) to request the "Psychology
 
Department of the University of Chile [to confirm] whether any psychological studies exist
 
at the national and international level to show if there are differences between children
 
raised by heterosexual and homosexual couples and the consequences that such
 
circumstances may have in relation to minors”41.
 
34. A number of media organizations covered the custody suit, including
 
newspapers with national circulation such as Las Últimas Noticias and La Cuarta42. Based on
 
these news reports, and other reasons related to the alleged misuse of remedies at the
 
criminal court of Villarrica where Ms. Atala served as a judge (infra para. 211), on March 19,
 
2003, the full Court of Appeals of Temuco appointed Judge Lenin Lillo43 to conduct a special
 
visit at the criminal court.
 
35. On March 11, 2003, Ms. Atala’s representative furnished documentary
 
evidence, requested that six testimonies be admitted and asked the court to carry out other
 
evidentiary proceedings, which was accepted by the trial court44. In addition, the
 
39 Custody suit filed before the Juvenile Court of Villarrica on January 14, 2003 (File of appendices to the
 
petition, volume V, annex 1, pages 2499, 2500, 2503 and 2504).
 
40 Response to the custody suit of January 28, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume V,
 
appendix 2, pages 2507, 2513, 2516, 2521 and 2522).
 
41 Court Order of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of January 28, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume I, page 113 and 114). 42 Press release, “Lawyer Demands Custody of his Daughters because Spouse/Judge is a Lesbian”,
 
Newspaper La Cuarta, February 28, 2003; and “Lawyer Demands Custody of his Daughters because his Former
 
Wife is a Lesbian”, Newspaper Las Últimas Noticias, March 1, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume V,
 
appendices 3 and 4, pages 2529 to 2532).
 
43 Report prepared by Minister Lenin Lillo Hunzinker, Court of Appeals of Temuco, April 2, 2003 (case file,
 
volume XII, page 5927).
 
44 Specifically, the representative furnished the following documentary evidence: i) psychological report of V.
 
and R. of December 2002; ii) psychological report of M. of December 2002; iii) psychological report of the minors
 
and their mother; iv) certification provided by the nurse at the health center attended by the minors, certifying
 
that “there [was] no evidence or physical signs of mistreatment” in the girls; v) copy of the academic reports of M.
 
16
 
representative requested the trial court to carry out different proceedings45. Moreover, Mr.
 
López’ attorney requested the trial court to produce twenty-two testimonies, a request that
 
was also accepted by the court46. On April 3, 2003, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica received
 
the testimonies of six relatives of the complainant and three relatives of the respondent47.
 
36. On April 8, 2003, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica held a private hearing with the
 
girls M., V. and R. and “a record of the private hearing was kept in a closed envelope at the
 
safe of the Court". The court also heard the elder son of Ms. Atala at the private hearing48.
 
37. On April 10, 2003, a hearing was held to present documentary evidence49. On
 
April 14, 2003, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica received four testimonies from individuals
 
proposed by the petitioner, in particular from a psychologist and a social worker50. In this
 
regard, the social worker when asked whether “children raised in homosexual families suffer
 
adverse consequences”, indicated that “there are social consequences, such as confusing
 
paternal and maternal roles which affect the development of sexual identity." The social
 
worker added that “another of the consequences is that in Chile, according to a study [...]
 
on tolerance and discrimination [carried out] in 1997, the conclusion was reached that
 
Chileans show an outright rejection of homosexual minorities[,] expressed by 60.2 per cent
 
of the population. [Based] on the foregoing and taking into account this high level of
 
discrimination[,] the minors would be exposed to situations of social discrimination that they
 
would not have wished for”51.
 
38. In addition to the relatives and close friends who made statements during the
 
hearing (supra para. 35) three domestic employees who worked at the home of the López
 
Atala family also made statements, indicating, among other things, that the father showed
 
far more concern for his daughters than Ms. Atala52. One of the workers also described the
 
behavior of the girls53.
 
 
and V.; vi) Christmas card made by M.; vii) copy of the decisions "in which the minors [were] recognized as
 
dependant relatives of the respondent"; viii) certificate of “Isapré Más Vida”; ix) copy of the grades obtained by Ms.
 
Atala in her profession; x) copy of the alimony arrangements made between Ms. Atala and the father of her elder
 
son; xi) copy of a health certificate of Ms. Atala “certifying the absence of genital herpes”; xii) copy of a health
 
certificate of Ms. Emma of Ramón “certifying the absence of genital herpes” xiii) copy of the negative AIDS test of
 
Ms. Atala; xiv) copy of the negative AIDS test of Ms. of Ramón; and xv) notary’s copy of the appointment of Ms. of
 
Ramón as coordinator of the regional archive of Araucanía. Brief of Ms. Atala of March 11, 2003 (File of appendices
 
to the application, volume I, pages 192 to 193). 45 The attorney requested: i) a report of the psychiatrist in charge of marriage counseling for Ms. Atala and
 
the petitioner; ii) to issue an official letter to the human rights department of the claimant’s workplace; iii) to
 
request the Pan American Health Organization to inform on “the date on which homosexuality was eliminated from
 
the catalogue of pathological conducts”; iv) to request the National Women’s Service to inform regarding the
 
“concept of family included in the Report of the National Commission on Family"; v) to request the General Ministry
 
of Government to forward the plan to overcome discrimination in Chile; and vi) to request the Director of the
 
Human Rights Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to inform "on the international obligations assumed by
 
the [...] State of Chile in the field of non-discrimination for sexual orientation or identity". Brief of Ms. Atala of
 
March 11, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume I, pages 193 to 195). 46 Cf. Brief of Mr. López of March 11, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume I, pages 197 to
 
199).
 
47 Cf. Record of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of April 3, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
I, pages 327 to 334).
 
48 Cf. Record of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of April 8, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
I, pages 350 and 351).
 
49 Cf. Record of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of April 10, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume I, pages 352 to 373).
 
50 Cf. Record of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of April 14, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume I, pages 374 to 393).
 
51 Testimony of Edith Paola Retarnal Arevalo of April 14, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
I, page 390).
 
52 Cf. Testimonial evidence rendered in an affidavit on April 14, 2003 before the Juvenile Court of Villarrica
 
by Erecilda Teresa Solis Ruíz (File of appendices to the application, volume I, page 370), Ana Delia Pacheco
 
17
 
2) Provisional custody granted to the father
 
39. In the context of the custody suit, the girls’ father filed a suit for provisional custody
 
on March 10, 2003, with a view to obtaining custody of his daughters prior to the conclusion
 
of the proceeding. In this regard, Mr. López representative argued the alleged
 
“incompetence that the sexual choice made by the mother and respondent, [Ms.] Atala
 
Riffo, and that was reflected in her express acknowledgement that she is a lesbian,
 
produces and will produce for the overall psychological and social-environmental
 
development of these three young girls, not to mention the hardly maternal and violent
 
behavior she has shown over the years, not only with her family but also with her social
 
environment.” In addition, she argued that “the respondent’s need to be happy and fulfill
 
herself as a person in all areas of her life […] is not compatible with being a parent, which
 
includes maternal capabilities [...], which, it seems, the respondent has selfishly
 
disregarded.” The representative of girls’ father also argued that the girls have the right to
 
live in a family made up of a father and mother of different sexes54.
 
40. On March 13, 2003, Ms. Atala answered the provisional custody motion filed by her
 
former spouse, asking that it be rejected in its entirety. In particular, Ms. Atala’s
 
representative argued that:
 
The legal representative of the petitioner [sought] to render without effect the status quo
 
achieved to date, a situation to which she has contributed with her assistance, participation, and
 
personal contribution as a professional in the appearances made, having achieved a temporary
 
system that better reflects the best interests of the minors […]. The fact that [Ms. Atala] is a
 
lesbian and acknowledges her condition as such, does not affect her maternal abilities and her
 
ability to create an environment with love, affection, respect, and tolerance for the purposes of
 
the education and development of the girls as human beings and future citizens of our country.
 
55
 
41. On May 2, 2003, the Juvenile Court of Villarica granted provisional custody of the
 
girls to the father, and regulated the mother’s visits, even though it expressly acknowledged
 
that there was no evidence to presume the legal incompetence of the mother. The Juvenile
 
Court based its decision, inter alia, on the following arguments: i) “Whereas […] the
 
respondent, having expressly acknowledged her sexual choice, cohabits with her partner in
 
the home she shares with her daughters, […] thereby altering the normal family routine,
 
giving preference to her personal interests and well-being over the emotional well-being and
 
social development of her daughters” and ii) “Whereas, the fact that the respondent has
 
given preference to her own well-being and personal interest over carrying out her role as a
 
mother, under conditions that could affect the subsequent development of the minors in the
 
case, […]there is no conclusion other than that the petitioner presents more favorable
 
arguments on behalf of the best interest of the girls, arguments which, in the context of a
 
heterosexual and traditional society, take on great importance” 56.
 
 
Guzmán (File of appendices to the application, volume I, page 375), and Graciela del Carmen Curín Jara (File of
 
appendices to the application, volume I, page 377).
 
53 Cf. Testimonial evidence obtained through an oral statement rendered on April 14, 2003 before the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarrica by Ana Delia Pacheco Guzmán (File of appendices to the application, volume I, page
 
376).
 
54 Suit for Provisional Custody of Mr. López Allendes of March 10, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, pages 2546 to 2552).
 
55 Response to Motion for Provisional Custody of March 13, 2003(File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, pages 2554 to 2557).
 
56 Decision in the provisional custody proceeding by the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, May 2, 2003 (File of
 
appendices to the application, volume V, appendix 10, pages 2559 to 2567). In the context of the provisional
 
18
 
42. On May 8, 2003, in compliance with the decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica,
 
Ms. Atala delivered her three daughters to their father57. In response to that decision, on
 
May 13, 2003, Ms. Atala sought to prevent the Regular Judge of the Juvenile Court of
 
Villarica from continuing to hear the custody proceeding based on his having incurred in
 
grounds for incompatibility [implicancia] as set forth in the Organic Code of the Courts58.
 
Ms. Atala’s representative maintained that in the decision of May 2, 2003, the judge gave
 
“form and content, with the force of a judicial decision, to a specific model of society, a view
 
that is no doubt at the bottom of the issue presented and is discriminatory because it is
 
based on stereotypes and patriarchal assumptions that do not accept and value diversity
 
and pluralism within society”59.
 
43. On May 14, 2003, the Regular Judge of the Juvenile Court of Villarica declared the
 
“sufficient grounds” for incompatibility (implicancia) without expressing an opinion on the
 
merits, and refrained from intervening in the custody proceeding until it was resolved in
 
accordance with Article 120 of the Code of Civil Procedure60.
 
3) Lower court decision granting custody of the girls to Ms. Atala
 
44. Given the disqualification of the Regular Judge, the Acting Judge of the Juvenile
 
Court of Villarica was responsible for issuing a decision on the merits on October 29, 200361.
 
In that ruling, the Judge rejected the petition for custody based on the view that the
 
existing evidence had established that the respondent’s sexual orientation was not an
 
impediment to carrying out responsible motherhood, that there was no psychiatric
 
pathology that would prevent her from exercising her “role as a mother,” and that there
 
were no indications that would allow for the presumption of any grounds for incapacity on
 
the part of the mother to take on the personal care of the minors. The Judge also concluded
 
that “no concrete evidence has shown that the presence of the mother’s partner in the
 
 
custody proceeding, the Juvenile Court gathered as testimonial evidence the following statements from: i) a
 
godfather of one of the girls; ii) a psychologist; iii) a friend of the family; iv) a domestic employee, and v) a nanny
 
(Merits file, volume XII, pages 5919 to 5921). Furthermore, the Juvenile Court considered as documentary
 
evidence various newspaper publications, a socio-economic report, a set of photographs, a report issued by Ms.
 
Atala’s psychiatrist, a report by the psychologist in charge of the girls’ therapy and the report of a student nurse
 
(Merits file, volume XII, pages 5918 to 5921). Likewise, the Court considered that “sufficient grounds exist[ed] to
 
affect the duty to personal care, legally established, [for which reason] the petitioner’s request was accept[ed].”
 
57 Cf. Record of May 15, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume I, page 572). 58 In this respect, the Organic Code of Courts [Código Orgánico de Cortes] provides:
 
Art. 194. Judges may not be competent to hear certain cases based on incompatibility or recusal, if necessary, by
 
virtue of legal reasons.
 
Art. 195. Incompatibility grounds: […] 8. The judge having given his opinion regarding the issue at hand with full
 
knowledge of the precedents necessary to issue a judgment.
 
Available at <nowiki>http://www.oas.org/juridico/spanish/chi_res9.pdf</nowiki> (last visit February 22, 2012)
 
59 Petition to bar Judge Luis Humberto Toledo Obando, May 13, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, page 2573).
 
60 Court Order of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of May 14, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume II, page 569). Article 120 of the Chilean Code of Civil Procedure in effect at the time of the events provides
 
that: Once grounds for disqualification are accepted as sufficient or declared in accordance with subparagraph 2 of
 
the preceding article, said declaration shall be made known to the official whose incompatibility or recusal has been
 
sought, ordering him to abstain from participating in the matter in question as long as the motion is not resolved”.
 
Available at: <nowiki>http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=172986</nowiki> (last access February 20, 2012), electronic address
 
furnished by the State in its brief of final arguments (Merits file, volume XII, page 5914).
 
61 Decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of October 29, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, page 2607).
 
19
 
home is harmful to the well-being of the girls.” The Judge pointed out that it had been
 
established that homosexuality was not considered pathological conduct and that the
 
respondent showed no “contraindication from a psychological perspective that would make
 
her unfit to carry out her maternal role.”
 
45. In evaluating Ms. Atala’s alleged incapacity to be a mother, because of her
 
acknowledged status as a lesbian and because she was living with a partner of the same
 
sex, the court considered a series of reports from organizations such as the Pan American
 
Health Organization, the Psychology Department of the University of Chile, and the School
 
of Education of the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, indicating that: i) “homosexuality
 
is a normal behavior and is not a manifestation of a pathological conduct” and ii) “the ability
 
to love children, care for them, protect them, respect their rights, and promote their life
 
choices […], is unrelated to the sexual identity or choices of the parents” 62. The court also
 
considered psychological reports on the minors and psychological reports on the respondent
 
and the petitioner, concluding that “the presence of the mother’s partner in the home
 
[where] the girls live[d] with their mother [was] not an impediment for the mother to
 
assume the personal care of the minors [and that] no concrete evidence ha[d] shown that
 
the presence of the mother’s partner in the home is harmful to the well-being of the girls.”
 
46. Regarding the quality of care that Ms. Atala provided for her daughters, the court
 
considered a report issued by a nurse at Villarrica Hospital and educational reports, and
 
indicated that this evidence “demonstrates the mother’s constant concern for the health and
 
education of her daughters and, consequently, it is established that the respondent has
 
provided for the upbringing, personal care and education of her daughters." The court also
 
indicated that although the complaint stated that the girls had been subject to mistreatment
 
by Ms. Atala, “it never describes concrete acts, and whether such acts amounted to physical
 
or mental mistreatment.” In addition, it declared that the court believed that there was no
 
evidence that would “lend credence to any type of mistreatment of the girls” by their
 
mother.
 
47. On the petitioner’s argument regarding the girls’ risk of contracting sexually
 
transmitted diseases, the judge considered medical certificates of Ms. Atala and her partner
 
confirming that there is no evidence of such diseases. On the moral danger the minors
 
allegedly faced, the trial court considered a social report on the respondent demonstrating a
 
harmonious family environment, “with clear rules and limits and a family routine that
 
operates appropriately with the supervision of the mother, who in the context of a
 
satisfactory partnership relationship, is seen as being in harmony with her environment and
 
concerned with and close to her daughters.” In addition, the court referred to the conclusion
 
of the report from the Psychology Department of the University of Chile asserting that “the
 
sexual orientation of the mother does not constitute a danger to the morality of the minors
 
because, as already indicated, as it is a normal condition or form of human sexuality it is
 
not subject to an ethical or moral judgment but rather may only be considered a person’s
 
physical condition, and not in itself subject to a value judgment.”
 
48. Regarding the potential discrimination that the girls might be subjected to and that
 
was mentioned by relatives and witnesses for the petitioner, the Acting Judge also
 
concluded that “the minors have not been subjected to any discrimination to date and what
 
the witnesses and relatives of the petitioner indicate is a fear of possible future
 
discrimination.” On this point, the court considered that it should “base [its] decision on
 
definite and proven facts in the case and not on mere suppositions or fears.”
 
62 Decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, October 29 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume V,
 
pages 2591, 2594 and 2595).
 
20
 
49. Finally, in its decision, the Juvenile Court considered that the girls had been heard by
 
the court and that, in the last hearing, dated October 8, 2003, “R. and V. expressed their
 
desire to return to live with their mother, and in the case of M. only a slight preference for
 
the mother was detected.” In this respect, the court observed that the statements made by
 
the girls during the hearing had been given consideration, but did not influence the court’s
 
decision due to their young age and the possibility that their opinions might be affected
 
“artificially by outside factors that influence them, distort them, or make them unsuited to
 
the proposed purpose.” 63
 
4) Appeal to the Court of Appeals of Temuco and injunction granted in favor of
 
the father
 
50. Pursuant to the decision issued on October 29, 2003, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica
 
ordered that the girls be handed over to their mother on December 18, 200364. However, on
 
November 11, 2003, the girls’ father filed an appeal against the court’s Decision and
 
subsequently a petition for temporary injunction [solicitud provisional de no innovar],
 
arguing that complying with the decision would mean a radical and violent change in the
 
girls’ current status quo65.
 
51. On November 24, 2003, the Court of Appeals of Temuco granted the injunction,
 
maintaining custody with the father66. With respect to this injunction, Ms. Atala filed a
 
disciplinary complaint against two members of the Court, based on the grounds of recusal
 
and disqualification.
 
67 Chile’s Supreme Court of Justice ruled on her complaint on July 2,
 
2004, declaring by a majority vote that there was no fault or abuse on the part of the
 
Judges. Notwithstanding this decision, some members of the Court "almost issued a severe
 
warning to the judges being challenged due to the omission for which the complaint was
 
filed.”68
 
52. On March 30, 2004, the Court of Appeals of Temuco, without the two Judges who
 
had withdrawn from the proceeding (supra para.51), unanimously upheld the decision
 
appealed by the girls’ father, sharing the considerations of the lower court judge, and
 
rendered without effect the injunction granted on November 24, 200369. The Court of
 
Appeals did not put forward new grounds and fully upheld the lower court’s decision.
 
63 Decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of October 29, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, pages 2591, 2594, 2595).
 
64 Court Order of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of November 5, 2003 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume II, page 933).
 
65 Appeal filed by Mr. López Allendes, on November 11, 2003 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
V, pages 2614 to 2632) and Petition for Temporary Injunction filed by Mr. López Allendes on November 22, 2003
 
(File of appendices to the application, volume V, pages 2634 to 2636). 66 Granting of injunction by the Court of Appeals of Temuco, November 24, 2003 (File of appendices to the
 
application, volume V, page 2638).
 
67 On January 7, 2003, the Rapporteur of the Court of Appeals of Temuco certified that "Judge Archibaldo
 
Loyola had disqualified himself from hearing the case and that Judge Lenin Lillo Hunzinker had considered that the
 
grounds for recusal, stipulated in Article 196 of the Organic Code of Courts, applied to him, insofar as he had prior
 
knowledge of the case, given that he had participated in an investigation during the extraordinary visit to the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarrica". See File of appendices to the application, volume V, page 2640. 68 Ruling of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, July 2, 2004 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
V, page 2645).
 
69 Judgment of the Temuco Court of Appeals, March 30, 2004 (File of appendices to the application, volume
 
V, page 2643).
 
21
 
5) Filing of remedy of complaint (recurso de queja) with the Supreme Court of
 
Justice and granting of second injunction in favor of the father
 
53. On April 5, 2004, the girls’ father filed a remedy of complaint (recurso de queja) with
 
the Supreme Court of Chile against the Judges of the Court of Appeals of Temuco and
 
requested that the girls remain in his care on a provisional basis. The girls’ father argued
 
that, in their decision, the judges being challenged had committed a “fault and serious and
 
flagrant abuse” because; i) they [had] given preference to the rights of the mother over the
 
rights of the daughters; ii) they [had] failed in their legal duty to protect the vulnerability of
 
the girls; and iii) they [had] violated the principles governing the conscientious assessment
 
of evidence in cases involving family matters.
 
70 More specifically, Mr. López Allendes argued
 
that the judges had ignored all the evidence in the case demonstrating that “open
 
expression of lesbian behavior produced directly and immediately in M., V., and R. confusion
 
regarding sexual roles that interfered with and will later interfere with the development of a
 
clear and defined sexual identity.”71 The Court granted the requested injunction on April 7,
 
2004.
 
72
 
6) Decision of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile
 
54. On May 31, 2004, the Fourth Chamber of Chile’s Supreme Court of Justice, in a split
 
three-to-two decision, admitted the complaint appeal and granted permanent custody to the
 
father. 73
 
55. In the first place, the Supreme Court emphasized that “in all measures concerning
 
[children], the best interests of children must be given priority over other considerations
 
and rights related to their parents, in such a way that it might be necessary to separate
 
them from their parents." The Supreme Court also noted that the first paragraph of Article
 
225 of the Civil Code, which provides that when parents are living separately the personal
 
care of the children falls to the mother, is not an “absolute and final” rule. Therefore, the
 
Court declared that “the court may entrust the personal care of the children to the other
 
parent, terminating the custody of the parent who has it, if there is ‘justified cause’ that
 
makes it essential to make this decision, always taking the interest of the child into
 
account.”
 
56. In this context, the Court concluded that: i) “no regard was given to the testimony in
 
either the permanent custody proceeding or the provisional custody file with respect to the
 
deterioration of the social, family and educational environment of the girls since the mother
 
began to cohabit with her homosexual partner, or to the possibility that the girls could be
 
the target of social discrimination arising from this fact”; ii) “the testimony of persons close
 
to the girls, such as the house maids, refers to games and attitudes of the girls that reflect
 
confusion about the sexuality of the mother, which they could have perceived in the new
 
cohabitation scheme at their home”; iii) Ms. Atala “put her own interests before those of her
 
daughters when she chose to begin to live with a same sex partner, at the same home
 
where she raised and cared for her daughters, separately from the girls' father" and iv) “the
 
70 Appeal complaint and petition for injunction filed by the Mr. López Allendes, April 5, 2004 (File of
 
appendices to the application, volume V, pages 2652 to 2655). 71 Appeal complaint and petition for injunction filed by the Mr. López Allendes, April 5, 2004 (File of
 
appendices to the application, volume V, page 2654). 72 Cf. Granting of injunction by the Supreme Court of Chile, April 7, 2004 (File of appendices to the
 
application, volume V, page 2666).
 
73 Cf. Decision of the Fourth Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of
 
appendices to the application, volume V, appendix 22, pages 2669 to 2677).
 
22
 
potential confusion over sexual roles that could be caused in them by the absence from the
 
home of a male father and his replacement by another person of the female gender poses a
 
risk to the integral development of the children from which they must be protected.”
 
57. The Court also deemed the girls to be in a “situation of risk” that placed them in a
 
“vulnerable position in their social environment, since clearly their unique family
 
environment differs significantly from that of their school companions and acquaintances in
 
the neighborhood where they live, exposing them to ostracism and discrimination, which
 
would also affect their personal development.” Therefore, the Court felt that the conditions
 
described constitute “just cause” in accordance with Article 225 of the Civil Code, justifying
 
awarding custody to the father, given that the current situation “brings with it the risk of
 
harm, which could become irreversible for the interests of the minors, whose protection
 
should have preference over any other consideration.” The Court concluded that the
 
challenged judges failed by “not having strictly evaluated the evidence in the proceeding”
 
and by “having passed over the preferred right of the minors to live and grow within the
 
bosom of a family that is structured normally and appreciated in the social environment,
 
according to the proper traditional model, and have incurred serious fault or abuse, which
 
must be corrected through admission of the instant complaint appeal.”74
 
58. The two judges of the Chamber of the Supreme Court who voted to reject the
 
remedy of complaint put forward some arguments regarding the nature of that remedy.
 
75 In
 
addition, the dissenting judges deemed that, in accordance with Article 225 and the
 
preference it gives to the mother for the care of children in case of separation, “the judge
 
cannot change the general rule of where to place the care of the children based on arbitrary
 
judgments or unjustified, frivolous or ambiguous grounds, but rather only when a restrictive
 
examination of the legal standard and the accompanying evidence shows an “essential”
 
interest of the child.”76
 
B. Prior considerations
 
1. Prior consideration on the matter of the case before the Inter-American Court
 
74 Ruling of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the application,
 
volume V, page 2670, 2671, 2672, 2673).
 
75 In particular, they indicated that “it is not a procedural remedy that empowers this Court to resolve all
 
factual and legal issues presented by the parties in the case. As is fully known and in accordance with Article 545 of
 
the Organic Code of the Courts, the complaint appeal is a disciplinary remedy, the exclusive purpose of which is to
 
correct faults or serious abuses committed in the issuance of a jurisdictional ruling, through a) invalidation of the
 
ruling and b) the imposition of disciplinary measures on the judges who committed the serious fault or abuse
 
contained in the ruling being voided. Then and discarding as a legal imperative the possibility that the complaint
 
appeal might mean, in this Supreme Court, the opening of a third instance – that our procedural system does not
 
accept – or that it was a suitable means for imposing debatable opinions or interpretations, it is appropriate to
 
examine whether the judges being challenged have committed some serious fault or abuse by granting their
 
mother, Jacqueline Karen Atala Riffo, the care of her three minor daughters, M., V., and R., aged 10, 8, and 4”.
 
Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31, 2004, dissenting votes of Judges Jose Benquis C. and
 
Orlando Álvarez H. (File of appendices to the application, volume V, pages 2673 and 2674). 76 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31, 2004, dissenting votes of Judges Jose Benquis
 
C. and Orlando Álvarez H. (File of appendices to the application, volume V, page 2675). In said analysis, the
 
judges considered that: i) “the record did not provide any history on the basis of which it could be speculated that
 
the mother […] had mistreated or neglected her daughters” and ii) the “expert opinions that appear in the record
 
from both psychologists and social workers indicate that the mother’s sexuality does not infringe the rights of the
 
girls, nor does it deprive her of the exercise of her right as a mother, since from a psychological or psychiatric
 
perspective, in the judgment of those experts, this is an absolutely normal person”. Therefore, the judges conclude
 
that “by depriving the mother, based solely on her sexual choice, of the custody of her minor daughters, – as the
 
father ha[d] requested based on clearly subjective assessments – means imposing both on the daughters and on
 
their mother an unnamed sanction that is outside the margin of the law, in addition to being discriminatory”.
 
23
 
Arguments of the parties
 
59. The Commission argued that the present case “refers to discrimination and arbitrary
 
interference in the private life of [Ms.] Atala, which occurred in the context of a judicial
 
proceeding regarding the custody and care of her three daughters.” This, in consideration of
 
the fact that [Ms.] Atala’s sexual orientation, and particularly the expression of that
 
orientation in her lifestyle, were allegedly the main grounds for the decisions taken to
 
remove custody of her daughters.”
 
60. The representatives agreed with the Commission’s general arguments, adding
 
that “the proceedings brought before the Inter-American System […] have not sought, nor
 
do they seek, to reopen the custody proceedings and use the Inter-American System as a
 
fourth instance.” Furthermore, they argued that “the State presented to this […] Court
 
reasons that the Supreme Court did not express in its decision on the remedy of complaint,
 
basing itself on documents that the Supreme Court had knowledge of and rejected in its
 
ruling.”
 
61. For its part, the State argued that “it is not true that the reason why Chilean
 
courts decided to take custody from the mother to hand it over to the father in the case of
 
the López Atala girls was the sexual orientation” of Ms. Atala. Specifically, the State alleged
 
that “the purpose of the custody trial in the case of López with Atala was not to declare the
 
disqualification of the mother, but to determine if the father or mother offered better
 
conditions to ensure the well-being of the three girls.” Accordingly, the State argued that
 
“[i]t is not true that the grounds for the mentioned decisions were the mother’s sexual
 
orientation or its mere expression. On the contrary, from the tenor of these [decisions] it
 
can be concluded […] that these are based on the higher interest of the child, and, within
 
that context, the defendant’s sexual orientation was considered, among other
 
circumstances, in the measure that its expression had specific adverse effects on the girls’
 
well-being.” According to the State, “the judgment issued by the Supreme Court ruled that
 
the lower courts had incurred in serious misconduct or abuse in violating the rules on the
 
assessment of evidence, […] since […] said courts did not weigh the overall merits of all the
 
evidence presented.”
 
62. In general terms, the State argued that, in the custody proceeding “there [was]
 
abundant evidence […] that prove[d]… that the father offered better conditions for the well-
 
being” of the girls. Specifically, the State argued, that “there was compelling evidence that
 
showed that the defendant had an intensely self-centered attitude and personal
 
characteristics that made it difficult for her to adequately exercise a maternal role,
 
circumstances that led to the conclusion that the mother did not offer a suitable
 
environment for the development of her daughters.”
 
63. On the other hand, the State argued that “regarding the father there was
 
considerable evidence […] that prove[d]: i) his dedication and attention to the care of his
 
daughters; ii) his skills in their upbringing; iii) the favorable environment he offered for the
 
well-being of his daughters, and iv) the positive relationship that existed between the girls
 
and the claimant’s partner.” Furthermore, the State noted that upon examining the
 
evidence in the case file, it would be clear that the decision regarding provisional custody
 
“also took into account matters other than the aforesaid sexual orientation, such as
 
determining whether the father or the mother offered a greater degree of commitment and
 
care to the girls.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
 
24
 
64. From the arguments presented by the State, and from the evidence contained
 
in the case file, the Court considers that at the custody trial the following aspects were
 
discussed, inter alia: i) the sexual orientation of Ms. Atala; ii) Ms. Atala’s personality; iii) the
 
alleged damage caused to the girls, and iv) the alleged precedence given by Ms. Atala to
 
her interests. In addition, with respect to the girls’ father, arguments were presented in
 
favor and against the question of whether he could offer them greater well-being. The State
 
considered that the Inter-American Court should analyze all the evidence examined during
 
the custody trial and not only the judgments issued by the domestic courts.
 
65. In this regard, the Court reiterates that international jurisdiction has a
 
subsidiary,77 reinforcing, and complementary78 role, and therefore does not perform the
 
duties of a “fourth instance” court. The Court is not an appeals body that must resolve
 
disagreements between parties regarding some aspects of the assessment of the evidence
 
or the application of domestic law in matters that do not directly concern compliance with
 
international human rights obligations. Thus, this Court has held that, in principle, “it is up
 
to the State courts to examine the facts and the evidence presented in individual cases.”79
 
66. Accordingly, it is not up to this Court to determine whether the mother or the
 
father offered the three girls a better home, or to assess the evidence to that end, since this
 
is outside the scope of the present case, whose purpose is to determine whether or not the
 
judicial authorities have fulfilled their obligations under the Convention. Similarly, and based
 
on the subsidiary nature of the Inter-American system, the Court is not competent to issue
 
a ruling on the custody of the three girls M., V. and R., since this is a matter exclusively for
 
Chile’s domestic courts. Therefore, the current custody of the minors is not the object of
 
this case.
 
2. Prior consideration on the participation of the girls M., V. and R.
 
67. In the Decision of November 29, 2011 (supra para 12) the Court noted that the
 
file contained no specific statements by the daughters M., V. and R. as to whether or not
 
they agreed with the representation exercised by either of their parents or whether they
 
wished to be considered as alleged victims in this case. The Court pointed out that although
 
there were two briefs in which both the mother and the father stated that they were acting
 
on behalf of the three girls before this Court, the position of the mother and the father did
 
not necessarily represent the girls’ best interests.
 
68. Furthermore, in its Decision, the Court stated that children exercise their rights
 
progressively, as they develop a greater degree of independence, and for this reason during
 
early childhood their relatives act on their behalf. Clearly, the level of physical and
 
intellectual development, experience and information varies widely among children.
 
Therefore, when the hearing was held in accordance with the aforementioned Decision
 
77 Cf. Case of Acevedo Jaramillo et al. v. Peru. Interpretation of the Judgment of Preliminary Objections,
 
Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of November 24, 2006. Series C No. 157, para. 66 and Case of Cabrera
 
García and Montiel Flores v. Mexico. Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of November
 
26 2010. Series C No. 220, para. 16. 78 The Preamble to the American Convention states that international protection is “in the form of a
 
convention reinforcing or complementing the protection provided by the domestic law of the American states.” See
 
also, The Effect of Reservations on the Entry into Force of the American Convention on Human Rights (Arts. 74 and
 
75). Advisory Opinion OC-2/82 of September 24, 1982. Series A No. 2, para. 31; The Expression "Laws" in Article
 
30 of the American Convention on Human Rights. Advisory Opinion OC-6/86 of May 9, 1986. Series A No. 6, para.
 
26, and Case of Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras. Merits. Judgment of July 29, 1988. Series C No. 4, para. 61. 79 Cabrera, para. 16. Case Nogueira of Carvalho et al. v. Brazil. Preliminary Objections and Merits. Judgment
 
of November 28, 2006. Series C No. 161, para. 80 and Case Cabrera García and Montiel Flores, supra note 77,
 
para. 16.
 
25
 
(supra para. 13), it was taken into account that the three girls were then aged 12, 13 and
 
17 years of age and that there might be differences in their views and in the level of
 
personal independence for each of the girls to exercise her rights. In the instant case, the
 
Court heard two of the girls on February 8, 2012. (supra para. 13).
 
69. During the hearing, the Secretariat staff was accompanied by the psychiatrist María
 
Alicia Espinoza80. Prior to commencing the proceeding, the delegation of the Secretariat of
 
the Court held a prior meeting with the psychiatrist, consisting of an exchange of ideas, in
 
order to ensure that the information provided was accessible and appropriate for the girls.
 
Taking into account the international standards on a child’s right to be heard (infra paras.
 
196 to 200), the girls M. and R. were, in the first place, informed jointly by the staff of the
 
Secretariat of their right to be heard, the effects or consequences that their opinions might
 
have in the dispute in this case, the position and arguments of the parties in the present
 
case. They were also asked whether they wished to continue participating in the proceeding.
 
Subsequently, instead of conducting a unilateral examination, a conversation was held with
 
each girl separately, in order to provide the girls with an appropriate environment of trust.
 
During the proceeding neither of the parents and neither of the parties were present.
 
Furthermore, the proceeding conducted with the girls was private, due to the request, both
 
by the Commission and by the representatives in this case, that the identity of the girls
 
remain confidential (supra note 3), and to the need to protect the girls’ best interest and
 
their right to privacy. In addition, the girls expressly requested that everything said by them
 
during the meeting be kept in the strictest confidence.
 
70. During the proceeding of February 8, 2012, the girls M. and R. said they were
 
aware of and understood the matters related to the three alleged violations in which they
 
were presented as alleged victims in the present case (infra paras. 150, 176, 178 and 201).
 
From the statements made by the two girls and bearing in mind the progressive nature of
 
children’s rights, the Court noted that the two girls had expressed freely and independently
 
their own views and judgments regarding the facts of the case that concern them, as well as
 
some of their expectations and interests in the resolution of this case. Therefore, the Court
 
shall consider them as alleged victims in the case at hand (infra paras. 150, 176, 178 and
 
208).
 
71. As mentioned previously, the girl V. did not participate in the hearing for
 
reasons of force majeure (supra para. 13). Based on the preceding considerations, the
 
Court finds no grounds to consider that the girl V. is not in the same situation as her sisters
 
(infra paras. 150, 176, 178 and 208). However, for the purposes of reparations, the
 
competent national authority for children must privately confirm the girl V’s free opinion
 
regarding whether she wishes to be considered as an injured party.
 
C. The right to equality and the prohibition of discrimination
 
Arguments of the parties
 
72. Regarding the alleged violation of Articles 2481 and 1(1)82 of the American
 
Convention the Commission argued that “it is widely acknowledged in the American States
 
80 In its brief of February 3, 2012 the State presented its observations concerning the participation of the
 
psychiatrist Espinoza in the proceeding. On February 6, 2012, following the instructions of the President of the
 
Court, the parties were informed that psychiatrist Espinoza had been designated to accompany the delegation of
 
the Secretariat, if necessary. Likewise, the record sent to the parties indicated that although the support of
 
psychiatrist Espinoza had been contemplated in this case, this was not necessary. 81 Article 24 of the American Convention (Right to Equal Protection) stipulates that:
 
26
 
that discrimination based on sexual orientation is forbidden.” It noted that “sexual
 
orientation […] was the grounds for the Supreme Court’s decision,” which presumably
 
determined that Ms. Atala “should not have custody of her daughters [given that] she lived
 
with a person of the same sex. The Supreme Court added that “a distinction was made to
 
the detriment of [Ms.] Atala regarding the application of relevant legal instruments for the
 
determination of family matters, based on the expression of her sexual orientation and her
 
decision to form a couple and establish a life with her [partner].” It also noted that the
 
“provisional custody decision […] was also a distinction based on Ms. Atala’s sexual
 
orientation.” Furthermore, it stated that “in comparative constitutional law the definition of
 
“suspect category has been used” and, consequently, a strict scrutiny test has been applied
 
to cases related to sexual orientation.”
 
73. The representatives pointed out that the States “signed the American
 
Convention with an open clause of non-discrimination, and therefore they cannot now claim
 
that their level of social and political development prevents them from understanding that
 
sexual orientation is included as a category for which discrimination is prohibited.” They also
 
alleged that the “decision in the remedy of complaint is […] a judgment of scrutiny of [Mrs.]
 
Atala and her private life, without considering her parenting skills, which was the issue that
 
needed to be considered. They added that “the scrutiny judgment [was not applied] to the
 
life of [Mr.] López, about which nothing is known, questioned or investigated, nor of his
 
parental skills.” Therefore, they consider that “this mere fact constitutes a difference in
 
treatment, which is not contemplated by Chilean Law and is clearly prohibited by
 
international law.” Furthermore, they alleged that the “Supreme Court of Chile […] created a
 
category of persons who, by their very nature, regardless of their behavior, would not be
 
able to take care of their own children, by virtue of being associated with situations of
 
mistreatment and neglect.”
 
74. The State argued that “the [Inter-American] System [of Human Rights] needs the
 
credibility and trust of the Member States. A relationship based on mutual trust could be
 
affected if the Court assumes an excessively regulatory role, without considering the views
 
of the majority of the States.” The State argued that “upon signing [the American
 
Convention], the Member States agreed to abide by its provisions. Although the legal
 
interpretation may be flexible and the language of human rights acknowledges their
 
progressive development, the States gave their consent to a notion of human rights that
 
had certain types of violations in mind, and not others that did not exist at the time. If it
 
should be necessary to extend the scope of the agreement to include matters on which
 
there is not a minimum consensus, the [American Convention] itself establishes a procedure
 
for incorporating protocols that protect other rights.”
 
75. Likewise, the State pointed out that “sexual orientation was not a suspect category
 
on which there was consensus in 2004,” when the Supreme Court issued its judgment in the
 
 
All persons are equal before the law. Consequently, they are entitled, without discrimination, to
 
equal protection before the law.
 
82 Article 1(1)of the American Convention (Obligation to Respect Rights) states that:
 
The States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms recognized
 
herein and to ensure to all persons subject to their jurisdiction and free and full exercise of those
 
rights and freedoms, without any discrimination for reasons of race, color sex, language, religion,
 
political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic status, birth or any other social
 
condition.
 
27
 
present case. It argued that “it would not be appropriate to demand [that the Supreme
 
Court of Chile] pass a strict scrutiny test for a category on which the Inter-American
 
consensus is recent.” It added that “the establishment of a “suspect super-category”, as the
 
sexual orientation of one of the parents would be in this case, and other similar ones, may
 
end up shifting the focus of a family law trial into a matter that gives priority to
 
consideration of the parents’ rights, to the detriment of the child’s best interest in the
 
specific case.”
 
76. Finally, the State argued that “having declared the mother legally competent, the
 
decision to accept the custody petition filed by the father and based on the girls’ best
 
interest and well-being is not arbitrary.” It also indicated that “it is not true that the grounds
 
for these decisions were based on the mother’s sexual orientation or on its mere
 
expression” and that “the [mother’s] sexual orientation was considered, among other
 
factors, to the extent that its expression had specific adverse effects on the girls´ best
 
interest.
 
Considerations of the Court
 
77. To resolve these controversies, the Court will examine 1) the scope of the right to
 
equality and non-discrimination; 2) sexual orientation as a category protected by Article
 
1(1)of the American Convention; 3) whether in this case there was a difference in treatment
 
based on sexual orientation; 4) whether said difference in treatment constitutes
 
discrimination, for which purpose the Court will strictly assess the reasons given to justify
 
said difference in treatment, taking into consideration the children’s best interest and the
 
alleged risk and damage to the girls.
 
1. Right to equality and non-discrimination
 
78. The Court has established that Article 1(1) of the Convention is a regulation of a
 
general nature, whose content extends to all the provisions of the treaty and it establishes
 
the obligation of the States Parties to respect and guarantee the full and free exercise of the
 
rights and freedoms acknowledged therein “without any discrimination”. That is to say,
 
whatever the origin or form it assumes, any treatment that may be considered
 
discriminatory regarding the exercise of any of the rights guaranteed in the Convention is
 
per se incompatible with it83.
 
79. Regarding the principle of equality before the law and non-discrimination, the Court
 
has stated84 that “the notion of equality springs directly from the oneness of the human
 
family and is linked to the essential dignity of the individual. That principle cannot be
 
reconciled with the notion that a given group has the right to privileged treatment because
 
of its perceived superiority. It is equally irreconcilable with that notion to characterize a
 
group as inferior and treat it with hostility or otherwise subject it to discrimination in the
 
83 Cf. Proposed Amendment to the Political Constitution of Costa Rica related to Naturalization. Advisory
 
Opinion OC-4/84, January 19 1984. Series A No. 4, para. 53 and Case of Indigenous Community Xákmok Kásek. v.
 
Paraguay. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of August 24, 2010 Series C No. 214, para. 268.
 
84 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-4/84, supra note 83, para. 55
 
28
 
enjoyment of rights which are accorded to others not so classified.” The Court’s case law
 
has also indicated that at the present stage of development of international law, the
 
fundamental principle of equality and non-discrimination has entered the realm of jus
 
cogens. The juridical framework of national and international public order rests on this
 
principle and permeates the entire legal system.85
 
80. Moreover, the Court has mentioned that “the States must abstain from carrying
 
out any action that, in any way, directly or indirectly, is aimed at creating situations of de
 
jure or de facto discrimination.”86 The States are obliged “to take affirmative measures to
 
reverse or change discriminatory situations that exist in their societies to the detriment of a
 
specific group of persons. This implies the special obligations to protect that the State must
 
exercise with regard to acts and practices of third parties who, with its tolerance or
 
acquiescence, create, maintain or promote discriminatory situations.”87
 
81. The American Convention, like the International Covenant on Civil and Political
 
Rights, does not include an explicit definition of the concept of “discrimination.” Based on
 
the definitions of discrimination in Article 1(1) of the International Convention on the
 
Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination88 and Article 1(1) of the Convention on the
 
Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women,89 the Human Rights Committee of
 
the United Nations has defined discrimination as:
 
…any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on certain motives, such as race, color,
 
gender, language, religion, a political or any other opinion, the national or social origin, property, birth or
 
any other social condition, that seeks to annul or diminish the acknowledgment, enjoyment, or exercise, in
 
conditions of equality, of the human rights and fundamental freedoms to which every person is entitled.90
 
82. The Court reiterates that while the general obligation of Article 1(1) refers to the
 
State’s duty to respect and guarantee “without discrimination” the rights included in the
 
American Convention, Article 24 protects the right to “equal protection before the law” 91.
 
That is, Article 24 of the American Convention prohibits discrimination, by law or de facto,
 
not only with regard to the rights enshrined in said treaty, but also in regard to all laws
 
85 Cf. Juridical Condition and Rights of the Undocumented Migrants. Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, of
 
September 17, 2003. Series A No. 18, para. 101 and Case Indigenous Community Xákmok Kásek, supra note 83,
 
para. 269. 86 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, supra note 85, para. 103 and Case of Indigenous Community Xákmok
 
Kásek, supra note 83, para. 271 87 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, supra note 85 para. 104; Case of Indigenous Community Xákmok Kásek,
 
supra note 83, para. 271; and UN, Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 18, Non- discrimination,
 
November 10, 1989, CCPR/C/37, para. 6.
 
88 Article 1(1)of the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination states:
 
“In this Convention, the term "racial discrimination " shall men any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference
 
based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing
 
the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
 
political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.”
 
89 Article 1(1)of the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against
 
Women states: “For the purposes of the present Convention, the term "discrimination against women " shall men
 
any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or
 
nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of
 
equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural,
 
civil or any other field”.
 
90 United Nations, Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 18, Non-discrimination, November 10,
 
1989, CCPR/C/37, para. 6.
 
91 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-4/84, supra note 83, paras. 53 and 54 and Case of Barbani Duarte et al. v.
 
Uruguay. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of October 13, 2011. Series C No. 234, para. 174.
 
 
29
 
approved by the State and their application. In other words, if a State discriminates in the
 
respect for or guarantee of a right contained in the Convention, it will be failing to comply
 
with its obligation under in Article 1(1) and the substantive right in question. If, on the
 
contrary, the discrimination refers to unequal protection by domestic laws, the fact must be
 
analyzed in light of Article 24 of the American Convention.
 
92
 
2. Sexual orientation as a category protected by Article 1(1) of the American
 
Convention
 
83. The Court has established, as has the European Human Rights Court, that
 
human rights treaties are living instruments, whose interpretation must go hand in hand
 
with evolving times and current living conditions93 This evolving interpretation is consistent
 
with the general rules of interpretation set forth in Article 29 of the American Convention, as
 
well as those established in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.94
 
84. In this regard, when interpreting the words “any other social condition” of
 
Article 1(1)of the Convention, it is always necessary to choose the alternative that is most
 
favorable to the protection of the rights enshrined in said treaty, based on the principle of
 
the rule most favorable to the human being95
 
85. According to Article 1(1) of the American Convention, the specific criteria by
 
virtue of which discrimination is prohibited do not constitute an exhaustive or limitative list,
 
but merely illustrative. Indeed, the wording of said article leaves open the criteria with the
 
inclusion of the term “another social condition,” allowing for the inclusion of other categories
 
that have not been explicitly indicated. Consequently, the Court should interpret the term
 
“any other social condition” of Article 1(1) of the Convention in the context of the most
 
favorable option for the human being and in light of the evolution of fundamental rights in
 
contemporary international law96.
 
86. In this regard, in the Inter-American system, the General Assembly of the
 
Organization of American States (hereinafter the OAS) has approved, since 2008, in its
 
annual meetings four successive resolutions referring to the protection of persons against
 
discriminatory treatment based on their sexual orientation, demanding the adoption of
 
specific measures for an effective protection against discriminatory acts.97
 
92 Case of Apitz Barbera et al. (“Corte Primera Contencioso Administrativo”) v. Venezuela. Preliminary
 
Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of August 5, 2008. Series C No. 182, para. 209 and Case
 
Barbani Duarte et al., supra note 91, para. 174. 93 Cf. The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due
 
Process of Law. Advisory Opinion OC-16/99, October 1, 1999. Series A No. 16, para. 114 and Case of the Mapiripán
 
Massacre v. Colombia. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of September 15, 2005. Series C No. 134, para.
 
106. In the European Court see ECHR, Case of Tyrer v. United Kingdom, (No. 5856/72), Ruling of April 25, 1978,
 
para. 31.
 
94 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-16/99, supra note 93, para. 114 and Case of the Mapiripán Massacre v. Colombia,
 
supra note 93, para. 106. 95 Cf. Compulsory Membership for Journalists (Arts. 13 and 29 American Convention on Human Rights).
 
Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of November 13, 1985. Series A No. 5, para. 52, and Case of Mapiripán Massacre, supra
 
note 93, para. 106. 96 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-16/99, supra note 93, para. 115.
 
97 Cf. AG/RES. 2653 (XLI-O/11), Human rights, sexual orientation and gender identity, approved at the
 
fourth plenary session, held on June 7, 2011 (“THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY […] RESOLVES: 1. To condemn
 
discrimination against persons by reason of their sexual orientation and gender identity, and to urge States, within
 
the parameters of the legal institutions of their domestic systems, to adopt the necessary measures to prevent,
 
sanction and eradicate such discrimination”); AG/RES. 2600 (XL-O/10), Human rights, sexual orientation and
 
gender identity, approved at the fourth plenary session, held on June 8, 2010 (“THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY […]
 
RESOLVES: 1. To condemn discrimination against persons by reason of their sexual orientation and gender
 
 
30
 
87. With regard to the inclusion of sexual orientation as a forbidden category of
 
discrimination, the European Court of Human Rights has stated that sexual orientation is
 
“another condition” mentioned in Article 1498 of the European Convention on Human Rights
 
that forbids discriminatory treatments.99 Specifically, in the Case of Salgueiro da Silva
 
Mouta v. Portugal, the European Court concluded that sexual orientation is “a concept
 
covered by Article 14 of the European Convention. It also reiterated that the list of
 
categories in said article has illustrative purposes and is not exhaustive.100 Recently, in the
 
Case of Clift v. United Kingdom, the European Court reiterated that sexual orientation, as
 
one of the categories that may be included under “another condition”, is another specific
 
example of those found on said list, which are considered as personal characteristics in the
 
sense that they are innate or inherent to the person.101
 
88. In the context of the universal system for the protection of human rights, the
 
Human Rights Committee and the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights have
 
classified sexual orientation as one of the categories of forbidden discrimination considered
 
in Article 2(1)102 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Article
 
 
identity, and to urge states, within the parameters of the legal institutions of their domestic systems, to adopt the
 
necessary measures to prevent, punish, and eradicate such discrimination. 2. To condemn acts of violence and
 
human rights violations committed against persons because of their sexual orientation and gender identity, and to
 
urge States to prevent and investigate these acts and violations and to ensure due judicial protection for victims on
 
an equal footing and that the perpetrators are brought to justice. 3. To encourage the member states to consider,
 
within the parameters of the legal institutions of their domestic systems, adopting public policies against
 
discrimination by reason of sexual orientation and gender identity.”); AG/RES. 2504 (XXXIX-O/09), Human Rights,
 
sexual orientation and gender identity, approved in the fourth plenary session, held on June 4, 2009 (“THE
 
GENERAL ASSEMBLY […] RESOLVES: 1.To condemn acts of violence and human rights violations committed against
 
individuals by reason sexual orientation and gender identity. 2. Urge States to prevent and investigate these acts
 
and violations and to ensure due judicial protection for victims on an equal footing and that the perpetrators are
 
brought to justice”); AG/RES. 2435 (XXXVIII-O/08), Human rights, sexual orientation and gender identity,
 
approved at the fourth plenary session, held on June 3, 2008 (“THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY […] RESOLVES: 1.To
 
express concern over acts of violence and human rights violations perpetrated against individuals by reason of their
 
sexual orientation and gender identity”).
 
98 Article 14 European Convention: The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention
 
shall be secured without discrimination on any ground, such as sex, race, color, language, religion, political or
 
other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.
 
99 Cf. ECHR, Case Salgueiro da Silva Mouta v. Portugal, (No. 33290/96), Judgment of December 21, 1999.
 
Final, March 21, 2000, para. 28; Case L. and V. v. Austria (No. 39392/98 and 39829/98), Judgment of January 9,
 
2003. Final, April 9, 2003, para. 45; Case S.L. v. Austria, (No. 45330/99), Judgment of January 9, 2003. Final,
 
April 9, 2003, para. 37; Case E.B. V. France, (No. 43546/02), Judgment of January 22, 2008, para. 50.
 
100 Cf. ECHR, Caso Salgueiro da Silva Mouta, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 28 (“the
 
applicant’s sexual orientation […] [is] a concept that is undoubtedly covered by Article 14 of the Convention. The
 
Court reiterates in that connection that the list set out in that provision is illustrative and not exhaustive, as is
 
shown by the words “any ground such as”., See also ECHR, Case of Fretté v. France, (No. 36515/97), Judgment of
 
February 26, 2002. Final, May 26, 2002, para. 32; Cf. ECHR, Case Kozak v. Poland, (No. 13102/02), Judgment of
 
March 2, 2010. Final, June 2, 2010, para. 92; ECHR, Case J.M. v. United Kingdom, (No. 37060/06), Judgment of
 
September 28, 2010. Final, December 28, 2010, para. 55 and ECHR, Case Alekseyev v. Russia, (No. 4916/07,
 
25924/08 and 14599/09), Judgment of October 21, 2010. Final, April 11, 2011, para. 108. (“The Court reiterates
 
that sexual orientation is a concept covered by 14”). 101 Cf. ECHR, Case Clift v. United Kingdom, (No. 7205/07), Judgment of July 13, 2010. Final, November 22,
 
2010, para. 57 (“the Court has considered to constitute [`] other status [´] characteristics which, like some of the
 
specific examples listed in the article, can be said to be personal in the sense that they are innate or inherent.
 
“However, in finding violations of Article 14 in a number of other cases, the Court has accepted that “status”
 
existed where the distinction relied upon did not involve a characteristic which could be said to be innate or
 
inherent, and thus “personal” in the sense discussed above”). 102 Article 2(1): Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all
 
individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without
 
distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social
 
origin, economic status, birth or any other social condition.
 
31
 
2(2)103 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. In this
 
regard, in the case of Toonen v. Australia the Human Rights Committee indicated that the
 
reference to the category “gender” would include the sexual orientation of persons.104
 
Likewise, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has expressed its concern regarding
 
several discriminatory situations related to people’s sexual orientation, which it has
 
expressed repeatedly in its final observations to the reports presented by the States.105
 
89. For its part, the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights has
 
determined that sexual orientation may be included in “another social condition”106.
 
Similarly, in the context of their general observations and recommendations, the Committee
 
on the Rights of the Child,107 the Committee against Torture,108 and the Committee on the
 
103 Article 2(2): The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated
 
in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language,
 
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
 
104 United Nations, Human Rights Committee, Toonen v. Australia, Communication No. 488/1992,
 
CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992, April 4, 1992, para. 8.7 (“The State party has sought the Committee's guidance as to
 
whether sexual orientation may be considered as "other status" for the purposes of Article 26. The same issue
 
could arise under Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Covenant. The Committee confines itself to noting, however, that in
 
its view, the reference to "sex" in Articles 2, paragraph 1, and 26 is to be taken as including sexual orientation”).
 
Cf. X V. Colombia, Communication No. 1361/2005, CCPR/C/89/D/1361/2005, May 14, 2007, para. 7.2. (“The
 
Committee recalls its earlier jurisprudence that the prohibition against discrimination under Article 26 comprises
 
also discrimination based on sexual orientation”). In this regard, the Human Rights Committee, in Edward Young v.
 
Australia, Communication No. 941/2000, CCPR/C/78/D/941/2000, September 18, 2003, para. 10.4.; see also
 
United Nations, Human Rights Committee, Final comments, Poland, CCPR/C/79/Add.110, July 25, 1999, para. 23.
 
105 Cf., inter alia, United Nations, Human Rights Committee, Concluding observations, Chile,
 
CCPR/C/CHL/CO/5, April 17, 2007, para. 16 (“While it observes with satisfaction that the laws criminalizing
 
homosexual relations between consenting adults have been repealed, the Committee remains concerned about the
 
discrimination The State Party should guarantee equal rights to all individuals, as established in the Covenant,
 
regardless of their sexual orientation, including equality before the law and in access to health care. It should also
 
launch awareness-raising programs to combat social prejudice”); Concluding observations, Barbados,
 
CCPR/C/BRB/CO/3, May 14, 2007, para. 13 (“The Committee expresses its concern over discrimination against
 
homosexuals in the State Party and, in particular over the criminalizing of consensual sexual acts between adults of
 
the same sex (Art. 26)”); Concluding observations, United States of America, CCPR/C/USA/CO/3/Rev.1, December
 
18, 2006, para. 25 (“It also notes with concern the failure to outlaw employment discrimination on the basis of
 
sexual orientation in many states (Arts. 2 and 26). The State Party should acknowledge its legal obligation under
 
Articles 2 and 26 to ensure to everyone the rights recognized by the Covenant, as well as equal protection before
 
the law, without discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.”); Concluding observations, El Salvador,
 
CCPR/CO/78/SLV, August 22, 2003, para. 16 (“The Committee expresses concern at the incidents of people being
 
attacked, or even killed, on account of their sexual orientation (Article 9), at the small number of investigations
 
mounted into such illegal acts, and at the current provisions (such as local “Contravention Orders”) used to
 
discriminate against people on account of their sexual orientation (Article 26).”
 
106 Cf. United Nations, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 20. Non-
 
discrimination and economic, social and cultural rights (Article 2, paragraph 2 of the International Covenant on
 
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), E/C.12/GC/20, 2 of July of 2009, para. 32 (“any other social condition", as
 
stated in Article 2.2 of the Covenant, includes sexual orientation”). Cf. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
 
Rights, General Comment No. 18. The right to work, E/C.12/GC/18, February 6, 2006, para. 12 (“Under paragraph
 
2 of Article 2, as well as Article 3, the Covenant prohibits any discrimination in access to and maintenance of
 
employment for reasons of […] sexual orientation”); General Comment No. 15. The right to water (Articles 11 and
 
12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), E/C.12/2002/11, of January 20, 2003,
 
para. 13 (“the Covenant prohibits any discrimination for reasons of […] sexual orientation”); General Comment No.
 
14. The right to enjoy the highest attainable level of health (Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic,
 
Social and Cultural Rights), E/C.12/2000/4, August 11, 2000, para. 18 (“By virtue of the provisions in paragraph 2
 
of Article 2 and in Article 3, the Covenant proscribes all discrimination in access to health care and the underlying
 
determinants of health, and to the means for their procurement, on the grounds of […] sexual orientation”).
 
107 Cf. United Nations, Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 3 (2003). HIV/AIDS and
 
the rights of the child, CRC/GC/2003/3, of March 17, 2003, para. 8 (“of concern also is discrimination based on
 
sexual orientation”); General Comment No. 4 (2003). The health and development of adolescents in the context of
 
the Convention on the Rights of the Child, CRC/GC/2003/4, July 21, 2003, para. 6 (“States Parties have the
 
32
 
Elimination of Discrimination against Women109 have made references to the inclusion of
 
sexual orientation as one of the prohibited categories for discrimination.
 
90. On December 22, 2008 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the
 
“Declaration on Human Rights, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity”, reaffirming the
 
“principle of non-discrimination, which requires that human rights apply equally to every
 
human being, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity.”110 Likewise, on March 22,
 
2011 the “Joint statement on ending acts of violence and related human rights violations
 
based on sexual orientation and gender identity” was filed before the Human Rights Council
 
of the United Nations.111 On June 15, 2011 the Council approved a resolution on human
 
rights, sexual orientation, and gender identity in which it expressed its grave concern over
 
acts of violence and discrimination, in all the regions of the world, committed against
 
individuals because of their sexual orientation and gender identity.112 The prohibition of
 
discrimination based on sexual orientation has also been highlighted in numerous reports by
 
special rapporteurs of the United Nations.113
 
 
obligation to ensure that all human beings under 18 enjoy all the rights set forth in the Convention without
 
discrimination (Art. 2), regardless of "race, color, sex, language, religion, or political or other opinion, national,
 
ethnic or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status". These grounds also cover sexual orientation”).
 
108 Cf. United Nations, Committee Against Torture, General Comment No. 2, Application of Article 2 by States
 
Parties, CAT/C/GC/2, of January 24, 2008 para. 20, 21 (“The principle of non-discrimination is a basic and general
 
principle in the protection of human rights and fundamental to the interpretation and application of the Convention.
 
[…] States Parties must ensure that, insofar as the obligations arising under the Convention are concerned, their
 
laws re in practice applied to all persons, regardless of their […] and sexual orientation”).
 
109 Cf. United Nations, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, General
 
Recommendation No. 27 on women of age and the protection of their human rights, CEDAW/C/GC/27, December
 
16, 2010, para. 13 (“The discrimination experienced by older women is often multidimensional, with the age factor
 
compounding other forms of discrimination based on […] sexual orientation”); Draft of General Recommendation
 
Nº 28 in relation to Article 2 of the Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women,
 
CEDAW/C/GC/28, December 16, 2010, para. 18 (“The discrimination of based on sex and gender is inextricable
 
linked with other factors that affect women, such as race, ethnic origin, religion or belief, health, status, age, class,
 
caste, sexual orientation”).
 
110 Declaration on human rights, sexual orientation and gender identity, United Nations General Assembly,
 
A/63/635, December 22, 2008, para. 3.
 
111 Joint declaration on ending acts of violence and related human rights violations based on sexual
 
orientation and gender identity, presented by Colombia in the 16th session of the United Nations Human Rights
 
Council, March 22, 2011. Available at: <nowiki>http://www.iglhrc.org/binary-data/ATTACHMENT/file/000/000/494-1.pdf</nowiki>
 
112 United Nations Human Rights Council, Resolution regarding human rights, sexual orientation and gender
 
identity, A/HRC/17/L.9/Rev.1, June 15, 2011.
 
113 Cf., Among other reports, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of all persons to enjoy the highest
 
attainable standard of physical and mental health, E/CN.4/2004/49, February 16, 2004, paras. 32, 38
 
(“International human rights law proscribes all discrimination in access to health care and the underlying
 
determinants of health, and to the means for their procurement, on the grounds of …… sexual orientation [...]
 
discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation is impermissible under international human rights law”). See
 
also the Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, A/HRC/6/5, July 20, 2007, para. 28;
 
Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related
 
intolerance, Mission to Brazil, E/CN.4/2006/16/Add.3, February 28, 2006, para. 40; Report of the Special
 
Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Integration of the human rights of women
 
and gender perspective: violence against women, Investigation into the links between violence against women and
 
HIV/AIDS, E/CN.4/2005/72, January 17, 2005, para. 27, 58; Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial,
 
summary or arbitrary executions, civil and political rights, in particular questions related to disappearances and
 
summary executions, E/CN.4/2003/3, January 13, 2003, paras.. 66, 67; Report provisional of la Special
 
Rapporteur of the Human rights Commission on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, A/57/138, July 2,
 
2002, para. 37; Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary General on human rights defenders,
 
E/CN.4/2001/94, January 26, 2001, para. 89 g); Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers,
 
civil and political rights, in particular questions related to: the independence of the judicial branch, the
 
33
 
91. Bearing in mind the general obligations to respect and guarantee the rights
 
established in Article 1(1)of the American Convention, the interpretation criteria set forth in
 
Article 29 of that Convention, the provisions of the Vienna Convention on the Law of
 
Treaties, and the standards established by the European Court and the mechanisms of the
 
United Nations (supra paras. 83-90), the Inter-American Court establishes that the sexual
 
orientation and gender identity of persons is a category protected by the Convention.
 
Therefore, any regulation, act, or practice considered discriminatory based on a person’s
 
sexual orientation is prohibited. Consequently, no domestic regulation, decision, or practice,
 
whether by state authorities or individuals, may diminish or restrict, in any way whatsoever,
 
the rights of a person based on his or her sexual orientation.
 
92. With regard to the State’s argument that, on the date on which the Supreme Court
 
issued its ruling there was a lack of consensus regarding sexual orientation as a prohibited
 
category for discrimination, the Court points out that the alleged lack of consensus in some
 
countries regarding full respect for the rights of sexual minorities cannot be considered a
 
valid argument to deny or restrict their human rights or to perpetuate and reproduce the
 
historical and structural discrimination that these minorities have suffered114. The fact that
 
 
administration of justice, impunity, Mission to Brazil, E/CN.4/2005/60/Add.3, February 22, 2005, para. 28; Report
 
of the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, A/56/156,
 
July 3, 2001, paras.. 17-25; Report on civil and political rights, in particular questions related to torture and
 
detention E/CN.4/2002/76, December 27, 2001, page. 14; Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other
 
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, E/CN.4/2004/56, December 23, 2003, para. 64; Report of the Special
 
Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and the use of children in pornography E/CN.4/2004/9,
 
January 5, 2004, para. 118; Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Opinion No. 7/2002 (Egypt),
 
E/CN.4/2003/8/Add.1, January 24, 2003, page. 72, para. 28. Within the framework of comparative law some
 
States explicitly prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation in their Constitutions (for example Bolivia,
 
Ecuador, Kosovo, Portugal, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland) or through laws, for example in matters of
 
family law, regarding granting homosexuals the same rights as heterosexuals. For example, in Argentina, Articles 2
 
and 4 of Law No. 26.618 of July 21, 2010 establish that: “Marriage shall have the same requirements and effects,
 
regardless of the fact that the spouses are of the same or of different sex” and "In marriages constituted by same-
 
sex couples, in the absence of an agreement, the judge shall decide [on custody] taking into consideration the best
 
interests of the child”; Uruguay approved Law No. 18.246 (Diario Oficial No. 27402, January 10, 2008), which
 
recognizes civil unions ("concubinary unions ") between same-sex couples. In 2009, Law No. 18.590, (Diario Oficial
 
No. 27837, 26 October 2009), authorized joint adoption by couples living in civil union.
 
114 According to different international and comparative law sources, this discrimination against the Lesbian, Gay,
 
Transsexual, Bisexual, and Intersexual (hereinafter “LGTBI”) is unacceptable because i) sexual orientation
 
constitutes an essential aspect of a person’s identity (infra para. 139). Likewise, ii) the LGTBI community has been
 
historically discriminated against and the use of stereotypes in treatment towards said community is common. Cf.
 
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of all persons to enjoy the highest level possible of physical and
 
mental health, E/CN.4/2004/49, February 16, 2004, para.33 (“discrimination and stigmatization continue to
 
represent a grave threat against the sexual and reproductive health of many groups, such as […] sexual
 
minorities,”.); Report of the Special Rapporteur on matters of torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading
 
treatments, E/CN.4/2004/56, December 23, 2003, para. 64 (“The attitudes and beliefs derived from myths and
 
fears related to HIV/AIDS and sexuality contribute to stigmatization and discrimination against sexual minorities.
 
Moreover, the perception that members of these minorities do not respect sexual barriers or question the
 
predominant concepts of the role attributed to each gender seems to contribute to their vulnerability to torture as a
 
form of “punishing” their unaccepted behavior”). On the other hand, iii) they constitute a minority that faces
 
greater difficulty in removing discrimination in areas such as the legislative sphere, as well as avoiding negative
 
repercussions in the interpretation of regulations by officials of the executive or legislative branches and in access
 
to justice. Cf. Special Rapporteur on the independence of senior judges and attorneys, Civil and political rights,
 
especially matters related to: independence of the judiciary, the administration of justice, impunity, Mission to
 
Brazil, E/CN.4/2005/60/Add.3, February 22, 2005, para. 28 (“Transvestites, transsexuals, and homosexuals are
 
also frequently the victims of episodes of violence and discrimination. When they turn to the judicial system, they
 
frequently face the same prejudice and stereotypes of society reproduced there”); Constitutional Court of
 
Colombia, Judgment C-481 of September 9, 1998, Juridical Grounds, para. 24 (considering that homosexuals
 
constitute one of the minority groups traditionally discriminated). Finally, iv) sexual orientation does not constitute
 
a rational criterion for the rational and equal distribution or sharing of properties, rights, or social burdens. Cf.
 
Constitutional Court of Colombia, Judgment C-481 of September 9, 1998, para. 25. In this judgment, regarding the
 
34
 
this is a controversial issue in some sectors and countries, and that it is not necessarily a
 
matter of consensus, cannot lead this Court to abstain from issuing a decision, since in
 
doing so it must refer solely and exclusively to the stipulations of the international
 
obligations arising from a sovereign decision by the States to adhere to the American
 
Convention.
 
93. A right granted to all persons cannot be denied or restricted under any
 
circumstances based on their sexual orientation. This would violate Article 1(1) of the
 
American Convention. This inter-American instrument proscribes discrimination, in general,
 
including categories such as sexual orientation, which cannot be used as grounds for
 
denying or restricting any of the rights established in the Convention.
 
3. Difference in treatment based on sexual orientation
 
94. The Court notes that in order to prove that a distinction in treatment has occurred in
 
a particular decision, it is not necessary that the decision in its entirety be based
 
“fundamentally and solely” on the person’s sexual orientation. It is sufficient to confirm that,
 
to a certain extent, the person’s sexual orientation was taken into account, either explicitly
 
or implicitly, in adopting a specific decision.115
 
95. In the case at hand, it is alleged that discriminatory treatment occurred with respect
 
to two different facts in the custody process: the Judgment issued in the remedy of
 
complaint and the ruling on temporary custody. To determine whether there is a causal or
 
decisive link between the decisions of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile and the Juvenile
 
Court of Villarrica, and the sexual orientation of Ms. Atala, it is necessary to analyze the
 
arguments presented by the national judicial authorities, their actions, the language used,
 
and the context in which the judicial decisions were made, in order to determine whether
 
the difference in treatment was based on sexual orientation.
 
116 In this regard, in the Case of
 
Salgueiro da Silva Mouta v. Portugal, the European Court concluded that the domestic court,
 
in considering the father’s cohabitation with another man as such, made the petitioner’s
 
sexual orientation a decisive factor in the final judgment.
 
96. Regarding the context of the custody proceeding, the Court notes out that the
 
custody claim was filed under the supposition that Ms. Atala “[was] not capable of looking
 
after and taking care of [the three girls, given that] her new choice of sexual life together
 
with her lesbian relationship with another woman, [were] having […] harmful consequences
 
 
right of a public school to not be fired due to his homosexual condition, the Colombian Court stated that the
 
separation of the professor from his work was based “on a prejudice without any empirical support whatsoever,
 
which denotes the unfair stigmatization that has affected this population and that has been invoked to impose
 
burdens upon them or deprive them of rights, in detriment of their possibilities to participate in realms that are so
 
relevant for both social and economic life.” (para. 29) On its part, judgment C-507 of 1999 declared
 
unconstitutional a provision that declared homosexuality in the armed forces a disciplinary infraction. In judgment
 
C-373 of 2002 the Court declared unconstitutional a provision that established as a cause for disqualification to
 
exercise the position of notary having been punished at a disciplinary level for the infraction of homosexuality.
 
115 Cf. ECHR, Case of E.B. v. France, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., paras. 88 and 89
 
“notwithstanding the precautions taken by the Nancy Administrative Court of Appeal, and subsequently by the
 
Conseil d'Etat, to justify taking account of the applicant's “lifestyle”, the inescapable conclusion is that her sexual
 
orientation was consistently at the center of deliberations in her regard and omnipresent at every stage of the
 
administrative and judicial proceedings. […] The Court considers that the reference to the applicant's
 
homosexuality was, if not explicit, at least implicit. The influence of the applicant's avowed homosexuality on the
 
assessment of her application has been established and, having regard to the foregoing, was a decisive factor
 
leading to the decision to refuse her authorization to adopt”)
 
116 Cf. ECHR, Case of Salgueiro da Silva Mouta v. Portugal, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined.,
 
paras. 28 and 31 and Case of E.B., supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 85
 
35
 
on the development of these minors, since the mother ha[d] shown no interest whatsoever
 
in looking after and protecting […] the overall development of these girls.”117 Therefore, in
 
addition to other considerations, the custody process revolved around Ms. Atala’s sexual
 
orientation and the alleged effects that her living with her partner could have on the three
 
girls. Therefore, this consideration was central to the discussion between the parties and in
 
the main judicial decisions made during the proceeding (supra paras. 41 and 56).
 
97. Specifically, the Court finds that the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile invoked the
 
following reasons as grounds for the judgment: i) the “deterioration in the social, family,
 
and educational environment of the girls since the mother began to cohabit with her
 
homosexual partner” and the “effects that this cohabitation could have on the’ psychological
 
and emotional well-being of the daughters;” ii) the alleged “risk for the integral
 
development of the girls from which they must be protected” due to “the potential confusion
 
over sexual roles that could be caused in them by the absence from the home of a male
 
father and his replacement by another person of the female gender;” iii) the alleged
 
existence of “a situation of risk” that places them in a “vulnerable position in their social
 
environment,” due to the risk of social discrimination, iv) that Ms. Atala had allegedly put
 
“her own interests before those of her daughters when she chose to express her
 
homosexual status” 118. These arguments and the language used show a link between the
 
judgment and the fact that Ms. Atala lived with a partner of the same sex, which indicates
 
that the Supreme Court gave significant importance to Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation.
 
98. Regarding the provisional custody ruling, the Court finds verifies that the Juvenile
 
Court of Villarrica119 used the following arguments: i) that Ms. Atala allegedly put her own
 
interests before the well-being of her daughters (supra para. 41), and ii) that “in the
 
context of a heterosexual and traditional society” the father offered “more favorable
 
arguments on behalf of the girls’ best interests” (supra para. 41). In this regard, the Court
 
considers that, as with the judgment of the Supreme Court (supra para. 97), the provisional
 
custody decision was based mainly on Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation. Therefore, this Court
 
concludes that there was a difference in treatment based on this category.
 
99. To determine whether these differences in treatment constituted discrimination, the
 
following paragraphs analyze the justification given by the State for making such a
 
distinction in treatment, in other words, the supposed protection of the child’s best interest
 
and the alleged damage the girls had suffered as a consequence of their mother’s sexual
 
orientation.
 
4. The principle of the child’s best interest and assumptions of risk
 
Arguments of the parties
 
117 Custody claim filed before the Juvenile Court of Villarica of January, 14, 2003 (File of appendices to the
 
claim, volume V, appendix 1, page 2500).
 
118 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, pages 2669 to 2677).
 
119 The Court indicated that “as stated in Article 225 of the Civil Code, if parents live separately, the mother
 
will see to the personal care of the children, and in any case, when the interest of the child makes it necessary,
 
either due to abuse, lack of care, or any other aggravated cause, the Judge may hand over the personal care of the
 
children to the other parent.” It added that “the Judge is given the hard judicial task of deciding which of the
 
parents is most suitable to make effective the Right to Custody of the minors, for which it must turn to objective
 
parameters – as is the merits of the proceedings – and to a judgment of probability, deciding in an interlocutory
 
manner due to the urgency the well-being of the girls calls for, with which of the two parents it is convenient that
 
they stay.” Ruling in the provisional custody claim by the Juvenile Court of Villarica, May 2, 2003 (File of
 
appendices to the claim, volume V, pages 2559 to 2567)..
 
36
 
100. The Commission considered that a child’s best interest is “not only a legitimate aim,
 
but also a pressing social need,” but that “the lack of suitability or causal relationship
 
between the goal sought and the distinction [made]” is evident in the speculative and
 
abstract reasoning of the decisions.”
 
101. The Commission stated that “both judicial authorities [(the Supreme Court and the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarrica)] based their decisions on assumptions of risk derived from
 
prejudices and erroneous stereotypes regarding the characteristics and behavior of a given
 
social group.” In this regard, it argued that “the decision was based on the judges’
 
stereotyped conceptions of the nature and effects of relationships between people of the
 
same sex.”
 
102. The representatives argued that the girls’ best interest “would in fact, in theory […]
 
be a legitimate goal.” However, they stated that “it is not enough […] to argue a legitimate
 
goal for it to be one; the State has the obligation to prove that said goal is real.” In this
 
regard, they argued that “the State simply says it is protecting the girls but it does not
 
objectively offer grounds for the damage that was allegedly caused to the girls and,
 
therefore, the decision lacks a legitimate goal.”
 
103. The representatives also stated that “it is appropriate to consider whether complete
 
separation from the mother fulfills the stated objective of protecting the girls.” In this
 
regard, they argued that “it may be considered that it does, even though it does so a way
 
that does not satisfy the principle of prohibition of arbitrariness, since the level of intensity
 
with which the rights are affected is clearly very high, and this leads to violations of their
 
rights.” Specifically, the representatives indicated that the court decisions “separate[d] the
 
girls from their mother figure, their referent, their place of residence, schools, friends, and
 
pets.” Furthermore, the representatives noted that the State “rewrites the judgment it
 
would have wished the Supreme Court to write, but it is not the one that began this
 
proceeding.”
 
104. Regarding the provisional custody decision, the representatives argued that “it was
 
neither objective nor reasonable.” In addition, they pointed out that the “judges assumed
 
that, in the case of lesbian women, living with a partner is a selfish interest that can only
 
provide well-being to the mother.”
 
105. For its part, the State argued that, in the context of a custody suit “a priority [is
 
established] in favor of the child’s best interest over any other protected interest in dispute,
 
[therefore] it is clear that in a custody proceeding it is necessary to understand the
 
aforementioned interest as strong grounds for justifying a change in [a child’s] regimen of
 
personal care.” Specifically, the State argued that “the judgment of the Supreme Court
 
found that the lower courts had incurred in serious fault or abuse by violating the rules for
 
the assessment of evidence, affecting the girls’ best interest.” Likewise, the State indicated
 
that in the provisional custody decision “the court declared […] that it is the task of the
 
sentencing body to safeguard a child’s best interest and ensure his or her greatest well-
 
being […] and therefore it decided to grant provisional custody to the father.” Furthermore,
 
the State argued that “the decision on provisional custody, after assessing all the evidence
 
to date in the case [...] conclude[ed] that: i) the girls showed disturbances of a
 
psychological nature and emotional deficiencies […], and ii) that the father offered certainty
 
of an appropriate environment.”
 
106. The State argued that “as regards to the requirement of “suitability” to ensure that
 
the measures applied by States are not discriminatory, in order to comply with the scrutiny
 
37
 
test […] it would have been sufficient to have proven the harmful situation suffered by the
 
girls in the case.” Specifically, the State argued that “there is abundant evidence on record
 
proving: i) the specific adverse effects that the respondent’s expression of her sexual
 
orientation had on the well-being of her daughters, and ii) that the father offered better
 
conditions for their wellbeing, a matter in no way related to the defendant’s sexual
 
orientation.” The State also argued that “there is convincing evidence that the defendant
 
displayed an intensely self-centered attitude as well as personal characteristics that made it
 
difficult for her to properly exercise her role as a mother, circumstances that led to the
 
conclusion that the mother did not offer a suitable environment for the development of her
 
daughters.” Likewise, it stated that “there was abundant evidence on record, not only on
 
the negative effects that the respondent’s expression of her sexual orientation had on the
 
well-being of her daughters, but also on totally external circumstances, such as the
 
determination of whether the father or mother offered a better environment for the girls’
 
development and a greater degree of commitment and care toward them.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
107. The Inter-American Court finds that, among its considerations, the Supreme Court of
 
Justice of Chile stated that “in all measures concerning [children] it is essential to consider
 
the child’s best interest over any other consideration and rights regarding their parents,
 
which could make it necessary to separate them from their parents.”120 For its part, the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarrica, in the provisional custody ruling, stated that “it is the sentencing
 
body’s task to ensure […] the child’s best interest, which implies conducting a preventive …
 
analysis leading to the ultimate purpose of any judicial ruling affecting a minor, which is
 
none other than seeking their greatest well-being.”121
 
108. The general purpose of protecting the child’s best interest is, in itself, a legitimate
 
aim and is also an imperative. Accordingly, the Court reiterates that the regulating principle
 
regarding children’s rights is based on the very dignity of the human being, on the
 
characteristics of children themselves, and on the need to foster their development, making
 
full use of their potential122. Likewise, it should be noted that the preamble of the
 
Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes that children require “special care” and
 
Article 19 of the American Convention states that they must receive “special measures of
 
protection.” 123
 
109. Similarly, the Court finds that the determination of the child’s best interest in cases
 
involving the care and custody of minors must be based on an assessment of specific
 
parental behaviors and their negative impact on the well-being and development of the
 
child, or of any real and proven damage or risks to the child’s well-being and not those that
 
are speculative or imaginary. Therefore, speculations, assumptions, stereotypes, or
 
generalized considerations regarding the parents’ personal characteristics or cultural
 
preferences regarding the family’s traditional concepts are not admissible.124
 
120 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, pages 2670).
 
121 Ruling on the provisional custody claim by the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, May 2, 2003 (File of appendices
 
to the petition, volume V, page 2566).
 
122 Cf. Juridical Status and Human Rights of the Child. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02 August 28, 2002. Series A
 
No. 17, para. 56. In similar vein, see: Preamble of the American Convention.
 
123 Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 60.
 
124 Cf., inter alia, in Australia: In the Marriage of C. and J.A. Doyle, (1992) 15 Fam. L.R. 274, 274, 277 (The
 
parent's lifestyle is of no relevance without a consideration of its consequences on the child's well-being); in the
 
38
 
110. In conclusion, the Inter-American Court notes that, “the child’s best interest” being
 
considered as a legitimate goal, in abstract terms, the mere reference to this purpose,
 
without specific proof of the risks or damage to the girls that could result from the mother’s
 
sexual orientation, cannot serve as a suitable measure to restrict a protected right, such as
 
the right to exercise all human rights without discrimination based on the person’s sexual
 
orientation.125 The child’s best interest cannot be used to justify discrimination against the
 
parents based on their sexual orientation. Therefore, the judge cannot take this social
 
condition into consideration as an element in a custody ruling.
 
111. A determination based on unfounded and stereotyped assumptions about the
 
parent’s capacity and suitability to ensure and promote the child’s well-being and
 
development is not appropriate for the purpose of guaranteeing the legitimate goal of
 
protecting the child’s best interest.
 
126 The Court finds that considerations based on
 
stereotypes of sexual orientation, that is, preconceptions regarding the attributes, behaviors
 
or characteristics of homosexuals or the impact these may have on children is not
 
admissible.127
 
112. Furthermore, the Court emphasizes that although the State provided evidence
 
concerning the specific arguments that the father could allegedly offer better environment
 
for his daughters during the custody proceeding, for the purposes of analyzing the suitability
 
of the measure, the Court will only take into consideration the evidence and arguments that
 
 
Philippines: Supreme Court of the Philippines, Joycelyn Pablo-Gualberto v. Crisanto Rafaelito Gualberto, G.R. No.
 
156254 of June 28, 2005, stating that sexual preference of itself is not a sign of parental incompetence to exercise
 
the custody of minors (“sexual preference or moral laxity alone does not prove parental neglect or incompetence.
 
[...] To deprive the wife of custody, the husband must clearly establish that her moral lapses have had an adverse
 
effect on the welfare of the child or have distracted the offending spouse from exercising proper parental care”); in
 
South Africa: Constitutional Court of South Africa, Du Toit and Another v Minister of Welfare and Population
 
Development and Others (CCT40/01) [2002] ZACC 20; 2002 (10) BCLR 1006; 2003 (2) SA 198 (CC) (10
 
September 2002), permitting the adoption of minors by same-sex couples, considering that it will not affect the
 
child’s best interest, and Constitutional Court of South Africa, J and Another v Director General, Department of
 
Home Affairs and Others (CCT46/02) [2003] ZACC 3; 2003 (5) BCLR 463; 2003 (5) SA 621 (CC) (28 March 2003).
 
125 In similar vein, in a case on the withdrawal of the custody of a minor based on the mother’s religious
 
beliefs, the European Court of Human Rights criticized the lack of specific and direct evidence proving the impact
 
the religious beliefs had on the upbringing and the daily life of the children, for which reason it considered that the
 
domestic court had issued a judgment in abstract, and based on general considerations, without establishing a
 
relationship between the children’s lifestyle and the mother’s. The Court stated that “Although relevant, that
 
reasoning was not in the Court's view sufficient. 43. In those circumstances, the Court cannot conclude that there
 
was a reasonably proportionate relationship between the means employed and the legitimate aim pursued. ECHR,
 
Case of Palau-Martínez v. France, (No. 64927/01), Judgment of December 16, 2003. Final, March 16, 2004, paras.
 
42-43.
 
126 In this regard, the expert witness Jernow stated that “analysis of the child’s best interest […] cannot be
 
based on groundless assumptions or stereotypes about parental capacity” (Merits file, volume XI, page 5069).
 
Similarly, expert witness Wintemute stated that “discrimination based on the race, religion, sex or sexual
 
orientation of the child´s parent is never in the best interest of the child. What is in the best interest of the child is
 
a custody decision that considers the qualities of the two parents, without examining considerations that are
 
irrelevant, and that are often linked to social prejudices” […]A non-discriminatory custody decision should not refer
 
to the sexual orientation of either parent. It should focus solely on the parenting skills of each parent, what kind of
 
home they can provide, etc. There should be no need even to mention sexual orientation” (Merits file, volume XI,
 
pages 5355 and 5358). Similarly, at the public hearing, the expert witness García Méndez emphasized that “the
 
sexual conduct that courts have generally taken into account in cases of this nature, are sexual conducts that refer
 
to promiscuity, […] without any other type of consideration.”
 
127 On the concept of stereotypes, Cf. Case of González et al. (“Cotton Field”) v. Mexico. Preliminary
 
Objection, Merits, Reparations, and Costs. Judgment of November 16, 2009. Series C No. 205, para. 401.
 
39
 
have been explicitly used by the Supreme Court or by the Juvenile Court of Villarica as
 
grounds for their decisions on provisional custody (supra paras. 41 and 56).
 
113. The Court notes that the Supreme Court of Justice mentioned four arguments
 
directly related to Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation: i) the alleged social discrimination suffered
 
by the three girls due to Ms. Atala’s expression of her sexual orientation128; ii) the girls’
 
alleged confusion regarding sexual roles as a consequence of their mother cohabiting with a
 
partner of the same sex;129 iii) the alleged priority Ms. Atala gave to her personal life over
 
the interests of her three daughters130, and iv) the right of the girls to live in the bosom of a
 
family with a father and a mother131. The Supreme Court concluded t
 
that the appealed
 
judges failed by “not having strictly evaluated in conscience the evidence in the proceeding”
 
and by “having passed over the preferred right of the minors to live and grow within the
 
bosom of a family that is structured normally and appreciated in the social milieu, according
 
to the proper traditional model, and ha[d] incurred in serious fault or abuse, which must be
 
corrected through the admission of the recurso de queja (remedy of complaint)” 132. The
 
main grounds for the provisional custody decision were the mother’s alleged preferred
 
interests and the argument of the girls’ right to live in a traditional family (supra para. 41),
 
for which reason these points shall be examined jointly.
 
114. Accordingly, the Court proceeds to consider whether these arguments were
 
appropriate to fulfill the purpose stated in the Supreme Court’s judgment and in the decision
 
of the Juvenile Court of Villarica, namely, to protect the best interest of the three girls.
 
4.1. Alleged social discrimination
 
115. The Court notes that among the statements taken during in the proceedings, one of
 
the witnesses stated that “there has been discrimination against the little girls, not by other
 
children, but by the parents, who repress the children; I do not have proof of specific acts of
 
discrimination, but an example given was that if there was a slumber party at Karen’s house
 
they would not allow their daughters to go.”133 In addition, some of the witnesses indicated
 
that: “the girls are going to be discriminated against and affected in their social
 
relationships;”134 ii) “in the school environment and among their peers […] they are being
 
pointed out, I am concerned that because we live in such a small city this situation could be
 
difficult”135, and iii) “the parents of their schoolmates and friends adopt protective attitudes
 
128 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2672).
 
129 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2672).”
 
130 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31 2004 (File of appendices to the petition, volume V,
 
page 2672).
 
131 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2672).
 
132 The Supreme Court considered that the situation described constitutes an “aggravated cause” pursuant to
 
Article 225 of the Civil Code, to justify handing over custody to the father, given that the current situation
 
represented “a scenario that implies a risk of harm, which could become irreversible, for the interests of the
 
minors, whose protection must override all other considerations.” Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of
 
Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition, volume V, pages 2672 and 2673).
 
133 Testimony of April 10 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I, page 360).
 
134 Testimony of April 3, 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I, page 327).
 
135 Testimony of April 3, 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I, page 328).
 
40
 
towards their children regarding this situation, which they consider contradictory to the
 
education they give their children and this must necessarily generate negative situations
 
and isolation for the little girls which, according to what I have heard, is unfortunately
 
happening.”136
 
116. Likewise, the social worker who testified at the proceeding indicated that “in Chile
 
according to a study […] on tolerance and discrimination [conducted in] 1997, it was found
 
that Chileans express a high level of rejection toward homosexual minorities [,] with the
 
percentage of rejection being 60.2%. Based on this, and aware of the high [level of]
 
discrimination [,] these minors would be exposed to unwarranted situations of social
 
discrimination”137.
 
117. On the other hand, the Court notes that the custody case file contains eight affidavits
 
from parents of schoolmates and friends of the three girls in which they testify, inter alia,
 
that “they have never discriminated against [Ms. Atala’s] daughters in any way and that
 
their children got together, played and participated in activities with the López Atala girls138.
 
118. In this regard, the Court confirms that although the case file contained evidence
 
from individuals who stated that the girls could be suffering discrimination within their social
 
environment due to their mother cohabiting with a partner of the same sex, there is also
 
evidence to the contrary regarding to this point (supra paras. 115, 116 and 117). However,
 
the Court notes that the Supreme Court described the potential social discrimination that
 
the girls might suffer in a manner that was conditional and abstract, since it stated that: i)
 
“the girls could be subjected to social discrimination,” and ii) that “clearly their unique
 
family environment differs significantly from that of their school companions and
 
acquaintances in the neighborhood where they live, exposing them to ostracism and
 
discrimination, which would also affect their personal development.”139
 
119. The Court considers that to justify a distinction in treatment and the restriction of a
 
right, based on the alleged possibility of social discrimination, proven or not, that the minors
 
might face due to their parents’ situation cannot be used as legal grounds for a decision.
 
While it is true that certain societies can be intolerant toward a person because of their
 
race, gender, nationality, or sexual orientation, States cannot use this as justification to
 
perpetuate discriminatory treatments. States are internationally compelled to adopt the
 
measures necessary “to make effective” the rights established in the Convention, as
 
stipulated in Article 2 of said Inter-American instrument, and therefore must be inclined,
 
precisely, to confront intolerant and discriminatory expressions in order to prevent exclusion
 
or the denial of a specific status.
 
120. The Court notes that social, cultural, and institutional changes are taking place in the
 
framework of contemporary societies, which are aimed at being more inclusive of their
 
citizens´ different lifestyles. This is evident in the social acceptance of interracial couples,140
 
 
136 Testimony of April 3, 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I, page 329).
 
137 Testimony of the social worker of April 14, 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I, page 390). 138 Affidavits of May 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I, pages 458 through 464).´
 
139 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, pages 2672).
 
140 Cf. The Supreme Court of Justice of the United States of America, Palmore v. Sidoti, 466 US 429, 433
 
(April 25, 1984), annulling a court’s decision to grant custody of a minor to the father because it considered that
 
the mother’s new relationship with her new partner of another race would imply suffering for the child, due to the
 
 
41
 
single mothers or fathers and divorced couples, which at one time were not accepted by
 
society. In this regard, the law and the State must help to promote social progress;
 
otherwise there is a grave risk of legitimizing and consolidating different forms of
 
discrimination that violate human rights141.
 
121. On the other hand, with regard to the argument that the child’s best interest might
 
be affected by the risk of rejection by society, the Court considers that potential social
 
stigma due to the mother or father’s sexual orientation cannot be considered as a valid
 
“harm” for the purposes of determining the child’s best interest. If the judges who analyze
 
such cases confirm the existence of social discrimination, it is completely inadmissible to
 
legitimize that discrimination with the argument of protecting the child’s best interest. In
 
the instant case, the Court also emphasizes that Ms. Atala had no reason to suffer the
 
consequences of the girls allegedly being discriminated against in their community due to
 
her sexual orientation.
 
122. Therefore, the Court concludes that the argument of potential social discrimination
 
was not adequate to fulfill the declared purpose of protecting the best interest of Ms. Atala’s
 
daughters.
 
4.2. Alleged confusion of sexual roles
 
123. With regard to the possible confusion of roles that could affect the three girls due to
 
their living with their mother and her partner, the Supreme Court based its decision on: i)
 
“the testimony of persons close to the girls, such as the house maids, who refer to games
 
and attitudes of the girls that reflect confusion about the sexuality of the mother, which
 
they could have perceived in the new cohabitation arrangements at their home,” and ii)
 
“apart from the effects that this cohabitation could have on the well-being and psychological
 
and emotional development of the daughters, given their ages, the potential confusion over
 
sexual roles that could be caused by the absence from the home of a male father and his
 
replacement by another person of the female gender poses a risk to the integral
 
development of the children from which they must be protected” 142.
 
124. As regards the prohibition of discrimination based on sexual orientation, any
 
restriction of a right would need to be based on rigorous and weighty reasons. 143
 
Furthermore, the burden of proof is inverted, which means that it is up to the authority to
 
 
social stigma attached to the mother’s relationship, who through her decision had allegedly put her personal
 
interests before those of the child (“The question, however, is whether the reality of private biases and the possible
 
injury they might inflict are permissible considerations for removal of an infant child from the custody of its natural
 
mother. We have little difficulty in concluding that they are not. The Constitution cannot control such prejudices but
 
neither can it tolerate them. Private biases may be beyond the reach of the law, but the law cannot, directly or
 
indirectly, give them effect”).
 
141 In this regard, in a case on discrimination based on religious belief in the context of a judicial decision on
 
the custody of minors, the European Court of Human Rights rejected the argument of a national court, according to
 
which the best interest of two minors could be affected by the risk of social stigma due to the mother’s beliefs since
 
she belonged to the Jehovah Witnesses religious sect. Cf. ECHR, Case of Hoffmann v. Austria, (No. 12875/87),
 
Judgment of June 23, 1993, paras. 15, 33 to 36.
 
142 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2672).
 
143 Cf. ECHR, Karner V. Austria, (No. 40016/98), Judgment of July 24, 2003. Final, October 24, 2003, para.
 
37 (“very weighty reasons would have to be put forward before the Court could regard a difference in treatment
 
based exclusively on the ground of sex as compatible with the Convention”), and ECHR, Case of Kozak, supra note
 
Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 92.
 
 
42
 
prove that its decision does not have a discriminatory purpose or effect. 144 This is especially
 
pertinent in a case such as this, bearing in mind that the determination of harm must be
 
supported by technical evidence and reports from experts and researchers in order to reach
 
conclusions that do not result in discriminatory decisions.
 
125. Indeed, the burden of proof here falls on the State, which must demonstrate that the
 
judicial decision under consideration has been based on the existence of clear, specific and
 
real harm to the children’s development. Thus, the judicial decisions on such matters would
 
need to define in a specific and concrete manner the connections and causality between the
 
behavior and the alleged impact on the child’s development. Otherwise, there is a risk of
 
basing the decision on stereotypes (supra paras. 109 and 111) exclusively associated with
 
the unfounded preconception that children raised by homosexual couples would necessarily
 
have difficulties in defining gender or sexual roles.
 
126. The case law of some countries, as well as many scientific reports, have clearly
 
referred to this matter. For example, the Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico, in a 2010
 
judgment on the right of homosexual couples to adopt minors, considered it relevant that
 
the petitioners did not empirically justify an alleged infringement of the child’s best interest
 
in cases of adoption by same-sex couples based on documents or scientific analysis. On the
 
contrary, the Supreme Court took into account existing studies on the impact of sexual
 
orientation on a child’s development, and considered that it was not possible to uphold the
 
general hypothesis that living with homosexual parents has a negative effect on children’s
 
development.145 Furthermore, the Supreme Court indicated that:
 
Heterosexuality does not guarantee that an adopted child will live in the best situation for his
 
development: this has nothing to do with heterosexuality-homosexuality. All types of families have
 
advantages and disadvantages and each family must be analyzed individually, not from a statistical point
 
of view146.
 
127. On the other hand, several judgments issued by international courts147 conclude that
 
in judicial decisions concerning the custody of minors, consideration of the parent’s behavior
 
144 Cf. ECHR, Case E.B, supra note 99, para. 74 (The Court observes, moreover, that the Government, on
 
whom the burden of proof lay […], were unable to produce statistical information on the frequency of reliance on
 
that ground according to the – declared or known – sexual orientation of the persons applying for adoption, which
 
alone could provide an accurate picture of administrative practice and establish the absence of discrimination when
 
relying on that ground); Case D.H. et al. V. Czech Republic, (No. 57325/00), Judgment of November 13, 2007,
 
para. 177 (As to the burden of proof in this sphere, the Court has established that once the applicant has shown a
 
difference in treatment, it is for the Government to show that it was justified); Case of Orsus et al. v. Croatia, (No.
 
15766/03), Judgment of March 16, 2010, para. 150 (discrimination potentially contrary to the Convention may
 
result from a of facto situation. Where an applicant produces prima facie evidence that the effect of a measure or
 
practice is discriminatory, the burden of proof will shift on to the respondent State, to whom it falls to show that
 
the difference in treatment is not discriminatory); Case of Andrejeva v. Latvia, (No. 55707/00), Judgment of
 
February 18, 2009, para. 84 (Lastly, as to the burden of proof in relation to Article 14 of the Convention, the Court
 
has held that once the applicant has shown a difference in treatment, it is for the Government to show that it was
 
justified); Case of Serife Yigit v. Turkey, (No. 3976/05), Judgment of November 2, 2010, para. 71 (As to the
 
burden of proof in this sphere, the Court has established that once the applicant has shown a difference in
 
treatment, it is for the Government to show that it was justified), and Case of Muñoz Díaz v. Spain, (No.
 
49151/07), Judgment of March 8, 2010, para. 50. 145 Cf. Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico, Action of Unconstitutionality A.I. 2/2010, August 16, 2010, para.
 
336.
 
146 Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico, Action of Unconstitutionality A.I. 2/2010, August 16, 2010, para. 338.
 
147 Cf. ECHR, Case of M. and C. v. Romania, (No. 29032/04). Judgment of September 27, 2011. Final,
 
December 27, 2011, para. 147, and Case of Palau-Martinez v. France (No. 64927/01), Judgment of December 16,
 
2003. Final, March 16, 2004, paras. 42, 43, where the European Court establishes that a judicial decision on the
 
handing over of the custody of minors to a state institution must not consider in abstracto the possible effects of a
 
specific condition of the parents, protected against discriminatory treatments, in the well-being of the child.
 
43
 
is only admissible when there is specific evidence showing that the parent’s behavior has a
 
direct, negative impact on the child’s well-being and development. This seeks to ensure that
 
greater scrutiny is applied when the judicial decision concerns the right to equality of
 
population groups that are traditionally discriminated against, such as homosexuals (supra
 
para. 92 and 124).
 
128. For their part, the experts Rodrigo Uprimny and Allison Jernow cited and provided a
 
number of scientific reports considered representative and authoritative in the field of social
 
sciences, to conclude that living with homosexual parents per se does not affect a child’s
 
emotional and psychological development. These studies agree that: i) the attitudes of
 
homosexual parents are equivalent to those of heterosexual parents; ii) the psychological
 
development and emotional well-being of girls or boys raised by gay fathers or lesbian
 
mothers are comparable to those of girls or boys raised by heterosexual parents; iii) sexual
 
orientation is irrelevant to the formation of affective bonds between children and their
 
parents; iv) the sexual orientation of the mother or father does not affect children’s
 
development in terms of gender and their sense of themselves as male or female, their
 
gender role, behavior and/ or sexual orientation, and v) the children of homosexual parents
 
are not more affected by social stigma than other children 148. Similarly, the expert Jernow
 
mentioned several judgments issued by national courts that used scientific investigations as
 
documentary evidence to affirm that the child’s best interest is not injured by the parent’s
 
homosexuality.
 
149
 
148 Cf. statement offered by expert Rodrigo Uprimny at the public hearing on August 23, 2011, referring to
 
the American Psychology Association, Council of Representatives, Policy Statement on Sexual Orientation, Parents,
 
& Children, adopted by the APA Council of Representatives July 28 / 30, 2004, which states that: “There is no
 
scientific evidence that a parent’s effectiveness is related to their sexual orientation: homosexual mothers and
 
fathers are as prone as heterosexual mothers and fathers to provide a healthy and favorable environment for their
 
children [and] […] science has proven that the adaptation, development, and psychological well-being of children is
 
not related to the sexual orientation of their parents, and that the children of homosexual parents have the same
 
probabilities of development as those of heterosexual parents.” Available at:
 
<nowiki>http://www.apa.org/about/governance/council/policy/parenting.aspx</nowiki> (last visit February 19 2012)
 
Also see written statement offered by the expert Allison Jernow on September 16, 2011, mentioning the following
 
studies: R. McNair, D. Dempsey, S. Wise, A. Perlesz, Lesbian Parenting: Issues Strengths and Challenges, in: 63
 
Family Matters 40 (2002); A. Brewaeys, I. Ponjaert, E.V. Van Hall, S. Golombok, Donor insemination: child
 
development and family functioning in lesbian mother families, in: Human Reproduction Vol. 12, 1997, Page 1349
 
and 1350; Fiona Tasker, Susan Golombok, Adults Raised as Children in Lesbian Families, American Journal
 
Orthopsychiatry Vol. 65, 1995, Page. 203; K. Vanfraussen, I. Ponjaert-Kristofferson, A. Breways, Family
 
Functioning in Lesbian Families Created by Donor Insemination, in: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Vol. 73,
 
2003, Page. 78; Marina Rupp, The living conditions of children in same-sex civil partnerships, Federal Ministry of
 
Justice of Germany, 2009, page 27; Henry M.W. Bos, Frank van Balen, Dymphna C. van den Boom, Experience of
 
parenthood, couple relationship, social support, and child-rearing goals in planned lesbian mother families, in:
 
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Vol. 45, 2004, page 755; Rafael Portugal Fernández, Alberto Arauxo
 
Vilar, Aportaciones desde la salud mental a la teoría de la adoption en parejas homosexuales, in: Avances en salud
 
mental relacional Vol. 3, 2004. This last study indicates that “no significant differences are found between
 
homosexuals and heterosexuals in terms of the effectiveness with which they exercise their role as parents” and
 
that “the research carried out to date unanimously indicates that there are no significant differences between
 
children raised by homosexuals and children raised by heterosexuals in terms of sexual identity, sexual roles,
 
sexual orientation, sexual relationships with peers and adults, relationships of friendship, popularity”; Stéphane
 
Nadaud, «Quelques repères pour comprendre la question homoparentale», in: M. Gross, Homoparentalités, état
 
des lieux, Ed. érès «La vie of l’enfant», Toulouse, 2005, and Fiona Tasker, Susan Golombok, Adults Raised as
 
Children in Lesbian Families, in: American Journal Orthopsychiatry Vol. 65, 1995, Page. 203. Cf. Written statement
 
rendered by the expert Allison Jernow on September 16, 2011 (Merits file, volume XI, pages 5079 and 5080).
 
149 Cf. written statement rendered by the expert Allison Jernow on September 16, 2011, mentioning the cases
 
of Re K and B and Six Other Applications, Ontario Supreme Court, May 24, 1995, para. 89; Boots v. Sharrow,
 
Ontario Supreme Court of Justice, 2004 Can LII 5031, January 7, 2004; Bubis v. Jones, Ontario Supreme Court,
 
2000 Can LII 22571, April 10, 2000, Supreme Court of Justice (Brazil) Public Ministry of the State of Rio Grande do
 
Sul v. LMGB, April 27, 2010; District Court of Porto Alegre (Brazil), Adoption of VLN, No. 1605872, July 3, 2006
 
(Merits file, volume XI, page 5082 and 5083).
 
 
44
 
129. The Court notes that the American Psychological Association, referred to by the
 
expert, has stated that existing studies on this matter are “impressively consistent in their
 
failure to identify any deficits in the development of children raised in a lesbian or gay
 
household […] the abilities of gay and lesbian persons as parents and the positive outcome
 
for their children are not areas where credible scientific researchers disagree”150. Therefore,
 
the expert concluded that:
 
Where speculation about potential future harm to a child´s development is soundly refuted by all available
 
social science research, such speculation cannot possibly establish the evidentiary basis for a custody
 
determination151.
 
130. The Court observes that, in the instant case, the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile
 
did not issue a judgment based on an analysis in abstracto of the alleged impact of the
 
mother’s sexual orientation on the girls’ development152, but instead cited the alleged
 
existence of specific evidence. However, in its considerations it limited itself to the
 
application of a test of speculative damage, merely referring, as regards the alleged
 
damage, to “the possible confusion of sexual roles” and the “situation of risk for the girls’
 
development”.153 The Supreme Court of Justice referred to “the deterioration of the social,
 
family, and educational environment of the girls since the mother began to cohabit with her
 
homosexual partner,” without specifying the connection between said cohabitation and the
 
alleged deterioration. It did not present arguments to challenge the possibility that the
 
alleged deterioration might not have occurred as a result of the relationship with the new
 
partner, but rather as a consequence of the parents’ earlier separation and its possible
 
negative effects on the girls. Nor did the Supreme Court of Justice present specific
 
arguments to support the claim that the family situation with the father was more favorable.
 
The Supreme Court of Justice’s argument was based on the potential psychological damage
 
that might be caused to the three girls by their living with a homosexual couple, without
 
giving sufficiently weighty reasons that would serve to refute that the parents’ sexual
 
orientation does not have a negative effect on the child’s psychological and emotional
 
wellbeing, development, sexual orientation and social relationships.
 
131. The Inter-American Court concludes that the Supreme Court of Justice did not
 
comply with the requirement to apply a strict scrutiny test and substantiate the specific
 
harm allegedly suffered by the three girls as a result of their mother cohabiting with a
 
same-sex partner. Moreover, the Court considers that, in this specific case, the fact of the
 
girls living with their mother and her partner did not deprive them of a father, since the
 
150 Cf. written statement offered by the expert Allison Jernow on September 16, 2011 which cites: Amicus
 
Curiae brief presented by the American Psychological Association, Arkansas Psychological Association, National
 
Association of Social Workers and National Association of Social Workers, Arkansas Chapter, in Department of
 
Human Services v. Matthew Howard, Supreme Court of Arkansas (December 2005) at 10-11 (“The APA has
 
described the studies as 'impressively consistent in their failure to identity any deficits in the development of
 
children raised in a lesbian or gay household […] the abilities of gay and lesbian persons as parents and the
 
positive outcome for their children are not areas where credible scientific researchers disagree'”). Cf. written
 
statement rendered by the expert Allison Jernow on September 16, 2011 (Merits file, volume XI, page 5081). 151 Cf. written statement rendered by the expert Allison Jernow on September 16, 2011 “Where speculation
 
about potential future harm to a child’s development is soundly refuted by all available social science research,
 
such speculation cannot possibly establish the evidentiary basis for a custody determination.” (Merits file, volume
 
XI, page 5083).
 
152 The Supreme Court referred to the testimonies given by the house maids regarding the girls’ alleged
 
confusion over roles. Cf. Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 considering paragraph
 
15 (File of appendices to the petition, volume V, page 2672).
 
153 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile of May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2672).
 
45
 
purpose of the custody hearing did not imply that the father would have lost contact with
 
them.
 
4.3. Alleged privilege of interests
 
132. In its judgment, the Supreme Court indicated that “it cannot be ignored that the
 
mother of the minors, in making the decision to openly express her homosexuality, as may
 
be done freely by anyone in the context of very personal gender rights, without deserving
 
any juridical disapproval or reproach for this, put her own interests before those of her
 
daughters, especially when she began to live with her homosexual partner in the same
 
home where she undertook the upbringing and care of her daughters separately from their
 
father.” 154 Similarly, the Juvenile Court of Villarrica declared that “the respondent has given
 
preference to her own well-being and personal interest over carrying out her role as a
 
mother, under conditions that could affect the subsequent development of the minors” 155.
 
133. The Inter-American Court considers it necessary to emphasize that the scope of the
 
right to non-discrimination due to sexual orientation is not limited to the fact of being a
 
homosexual per se, but includes its expression and the ensuing consequences in a person’s
 
life project. In this regard, in the Case of Laskey, Jaggard, and Brown v. United Kingdom,
 
the European Court of Human Rights stated that both sexual orientation and its exercise are
 
a relevant aspect of private life156.
 
134. In this regard, the expert Wintemute stated that:
 
“as the case law of the European Court makes clear, sexual orientation also includes conduct. This means
 
that protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation is not only about less favourable
 
treatment for being lesbian or gay. It also covers discrimination because an individual acts on their sexual
 
orientation, by choosing to engage in consensual sexual activity in private, or to enter into a long-term
 
couple relationship with a partner of the same sex.”157
 
135. The scope of protection of the right to a private life has been interpreted in broad
 
terms by the international human rights courts, when stating that it goes far beyond the
 
right to privacy. According to the European Court of Human Rights, the right to a private life
 
encompasses physical and social identity, an individual’s personal development and
 
personal autonomy as well as their right to establish and develop relationships with other
 
people and their social environment, including the right to establish and maintain
 
154 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2672).
 
155 Decision on provisional custody issued by the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, May 2 2003 (File of appendices
 
to the petition, volume V, page 2567).
 
156 Cf. ECHR, Case of Laskey, Jaggard, and Brown v. United Kingdom, (No. 21627/93; 21826/93; 21974/93),
 
Judgment of February 19, 1997, para. 36 (“There can be no doubt that sexual orientation and activity concern an
 
intimate aspect of private life”). See also Case of Dudgeon v. United Kingdom, (No. 7525/76), Judgment of
 
October 22, 1981, para. 52; Case of A.D.T. v. United Kingdom, (No. 35765/97), Judgment of July 31, 2000. Final,
 
October 31, 2000, para. 23 (“the Court recalls that the mere existence of legislation prohibiting male homosexual
 
conduct in private may continuously and directly affect a person's private life”).
 
157 Cf. expert testimony rendered by expert Robert Wintemute, September 16, 2011 (Merits file, volume XI,
 
pages 5360). He also stated that the Supreme Court of Canada in the Case of Egan v. Canada established that
 
“sexual orientation is more than simply a ´status` that an individual possesses: it is something that is
 
demonstrated in an individual’s conduct by the choice of a partner. Just as the [Canadian] Charter [of Rights and
 
Freedoms] protects religious beliefs and religious practice as aspects of religious freedom, so too should it be
 
recognized that sexual orientation encompasses aspects of ´status` and ´conduct` and that both should receive
 
protection”. Egan v. Canada, [1995] 2 SCR, 513, 518 (Merits file, volume XI, page 5360).
 
 
46
 
relationships with people of the same sex 158. Moreover, the right to maintain personal
 
relationships with other individuals, in the context of the right to a private life, extends to
 
the public and professional spheres159.
 
136. In this regard, a person’s sexual orientation is also linked to the notion of freedom
 
and a person’s right to self-determination and to freely choose the options and
 
circumstances that give meaning to his or her existence, in accordance with his or her own
 
choices and convictions. 160 Therefore, “[t]he emotional life with the spouse or permanent
 
partner, which obviously includes sexual relationships, is one of the main aspects of that
 
realm or circle of intimacy”161.
 
137. For its part, the Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico has stated that:
 
from human dignity […] arises, among others, the free development of the personality, that is, every
 
individual’s right to choose, freely and in an autonomous manner, how to live their life, which includes,
 
among other expressions, […] their free sexual choice. […] [a] person’s sexual orientation, as part of their
 
158 Cf. ECHR, Case of Pretty V. United Kingdom (No. 2346/02), Judgment of April 29, 2002. Final, July 29,
 
2002, para. 61 (“the concept of [‘] private life [’] is a broad term not susceptible to exhaustive definition. It covers
 
the physical and psychological integrity of a person […]. It can sometimes embrace aspects of an individual's
 
physical and social identity […]. Elements such as, for example, gender identification, name and sexual orientation
 
and sexual life fall within the personal sphere protected by Article 8 […]. Article 8 also protects a right to personal
 
development, and the right to establish and develop relationships with other human beings and the outside world
 
[…]. Although no previous case has established as such any right to self-determination as being contained in Article
 
8 of the Convention, the Court considers that the notion of personal autonomy is an important principle underlying
 
the interpretation of its guarantees”); Case of Schalk and Kopf v. Austria, (No. 30141/04), Judgment of June 24,
 
2010, November 22, 2010, para. 90 (“It is undisputed […] that the relationship of a same-sex couple like the
 
applicants' falls within the notion of [‘] private life [’] within the meaning of Article 8”); Case Dudgeon, supra note
 
Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 41 (“the maintenance in force of the impugned legislation constitutes a
 
continuing interference with the applicant’s right to respect for his private life (which includes his sexual life) within
 
the meaning of Article 8 par. 1”); Case Burghartz v. Switzerland, (No. 16213/90), Judgment of February 22, 1994,
 
para. 24, and Case Laskey, Jaggard and Brown, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 36.
 
159 Cf. ECHR, Case Peck V. United Kingdom, (No. 44647/98), Judgment of January 28, 2003. Final, April 28,
 
2003, para. 57 (“Private life is a broad term not susceptible to exhaustive definition. The Court has already held
 
that elements such as gender identification, name, sexual orientation and sexual life are important elements of the
 
personal sphere protected by Article 8. That Article also protects a right to identity and personal development, and
 
the right to establish and develop relationships with other human beings and the outside world and it may include
 
activities of a professional or business nature. There is, therefore, a zone of interaction of a person with others,
 
even in a public context, which may fall within the scope of [‘]private life[’]”), citing ECHR, Case P.G. and J.H. v.
 
United Kingdom (No. 44787/98), Judgment of September 25, 2001. Final, December 25, 2001, para. 56. Cf. ECHR,
 
Case Niemietz v. Germany, (No. 13710/88), Judgment of December 16, 1992, para. 29 (“The Court does not
 
consider it possible or necessary to attempt an exhaustive definition of the notion of [‘] private life [’]. However, it
 
would be too restrictive to limit the notion to an [‘] inner circle [’] in which the individual may live his own personal
 
life as he chooses and to exclude therefrom entirely the outside world not encompassed within that circle. Respect
 
for private life must also comprise to a certain degree the right to establish and develop relationships with other
 
human beings. There appears, furthermore, to be no reason of principle why this understanding of the notion of [‘]
 
private life [’] should be taken to exclude activities of a professional or business nature since it is, after all, in the
 
course of their working lives that the majority of people have a significant, if not the greatest, opportunity of
 
developing relationships with the outside world”).
 
160 Mutatis mutandi, Case of Chaparro Álvarez and Lapo Íñiguez. v. Ecuador. Preliminary Objections, Merits,
 
Reparations and Costs. Judgment of November 21, 2007. Series C No. 170, para. 52.
 
161 Constitutional Court of Colombia, Judgment T-499, 2003. The Constitutional Court has defined the right to
 
the free development of the personality, enshrined in Article 16 of the Political Constitution of Colombia, as the
 
right of persons to “choose their life plan and develop their personality according to their interests, wishes and
 
convictions, provided that it does not affect the rights of others, or violate the constitutional order” (Constitutional
 
Court, Judgment C-309 of 1997), and “a person’s capacity to independently make the life choices that will
 
determine the course of his existence” (Constitutional Court, Judgment SU-642 of 1998).
 
 
47
 
personal identity, [is] a relevant element in any life project they may have and that, as any other person,
 
includes the desire to share their life with another person of the same or different sex162.
 
138. In the instant case, the Court notes that both the Supreme Court of Justice and the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarica based their decisions to award custody to the father on the
 
assumption that Ms. Atala could openly declare herself a lesbian. However, they indicated
 
that by exercising her homosexuality when she decided to live with a same-sex partner, she
 
put her own interests before those of her daughters (supra paras. 41 and 56).
 
139. In this regard, the Court considers that the prohibition of discrimination due to
 
sexual orientation should include, as protected rights, the conduct associated with the
 
expression of homosexuality. Furthermore, if sexual orientation is an essential component of
 
a person’s identity163, it was not reasonable to require Ms. Atala to put her life and family
 
project on hold. Under no circumstance can it be considered “legally reprehensible” that Ms.
 
Atala made the decision to restart her life. Furthermore, it was not proven that the three
 
girls suffered any harm.
 
140. Therefore, the Court considers that to require the mother to limit her lifestyle options
 
implies using a “traditional” concept of women’s social role as mothers, according to which it
 
is socially expected that women bear the main responsibility for their children’s upbringing
 
and that in pursuit of this she should have given precedence to raising her children,
 
renouncing an essential aspect of her identity. Therefore, the Court considers that using the
 
argument of Ms. Atala’s alleged preference of her personal interests, does not fulfill the
 
purpose of protecting the best interest of the three girls.
 
4.4. Right to a “normal and traditional” family
 
141. In this regard, the Supreme Court of Justice stated that “the preferred right of the
 
minors to live and grow within the bosom of a family that is structured normally and is
 
appreciated in the social environment, according to the proper traditional model” was
 
disregarded164. For its part, the Juvenile Court of Villarica, in its provisional custody
 
decision, indicated that “the petitioner offers more favorable arguments on behalf of the
 
best interest of the girls, which in the context of a heterosexual and traditional society take
 
on great importance” 165.
 
142. The Court confirms that the American Convention does not define a limited concept
 
of family, nor does it only protect a “traditional” model of the family. In this regard, the
 
Court reiterates that the concept of family life is not limited only to marriage and must
 
162 Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico, Action of Unconstitutionality A.I. 2/2010, August 16, 2010, paras. 263
 
and 264.
 
163 Cf. ECHR, Case of Clift, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 57 (“the Court has considered
 
to constitute ‘other status’ characteristics which, like some of the specific examples listed in the article, can be said
 
to be personal in the sense that they are innate or inherent. Thus in Salgueiro da Silva Mouta, […] it found that
 
sexual orientation was [‘] undoubtedly covered [’] by Article 14”).
 
164 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2673).
 
165 Decision in the provisional custody application by the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, of May 2 2003 (File of
 
appendices to the petition, volume V, page 2567).
 
48
 
encompass other de facto family ties in which the parties live together outside of
 
marriage166.
 
143. International case law is consistent on this point. In the case of Salgueiro da Silva
 
Mouta v. Portugal, the European Court considered that the decision of a national court to
 
remove an underage child from the custody of a homosexual parent, with the argument that
 
the child should live in a traditional Portuguese family, lacked a reasonable relationship of
 
proportionality between the measure taken (withdrawal of the custody) and the purpose
 
sought (protection of the best interest of the minor) 167.
 
144. Similarly, in the Case of Karner v. Austria, the European Court of Human Rights
 
stated that:
 
“The aim of protecting the family in the traditional sense is rather abstract and a broad variety of concrete
 
measures may be used to implement it. […] as is the position where there is a difference in treatment
 
based on sex or sexual orientation, the principle of proportionality does not merely require that the
 
measure chosen is in principle suited for realizing the aim sought. It must also be shown that it was
 
necessary, in order to achieve that aim, to exclude certain categories of people” 168.
 
145. In the instant case, this Court finds that the language used by the Supreme Court of
 
Chile regarding the girls’ alleged need to grow up in a “normally structured family that is
 
appreciated within its social environment,” and not in an “exceptional family”, reflects a
 
limited, stereotyped perception of the concept of family, which has no basis in the
 
Convention, since there is no specific model of family (the “traditional family”)169.
 
4.5. Conclusion
 
146. Bearing in mind all the foregoing considerations, this Court concludes that although
 
the Judgment of the Supreme Court and the provisional custody ruling sought to protect the
 
best interests of the girls M., V., and R., it was not demonstrated that the grounds stated in
 
the decisions were appropriate to achieve said purpose, since the Supreme Court of Justice
 
and the Juvenile Court of Villarrica did not prove in this specific case that Ms. Atala’s
 
cohabitation with her partner had a negative effect on the girls’ best interest (supra paras.
 
121, 131 and 139). On the contrary they used abstract, stereotyped, and/or discriminating
 
arguments to justify their decisions (supra paras. 118, 119, 125, 130, 140 and 145), for
 
which reason said decisions constitute discriminatory treatment against Ms. Atala.
 
Therefore, the Court concludes that the State violated the right to equality enshrined in
 
166 Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, paras. 69 and 70. Also see: ECHR, Case Keegan v. Ireland,
 
(No. 16969/90), Judgment of May 26, 1994, para. 44, and Case Kroon et al. v. Netherlands, (No. 18535/91),
 
Judgment of October 27, 1994, para. 30.
 
167 Cf. ECHR, Case Salgueiro da Silva Mouta, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., paras. 34 to 36.
 
168 ECHR, Case Karner, supra note 143, para. 41 (“The aim of protecting the family in the traditional sense is
 
rather abstract and a broad variety of concrete measures may be used to implement it. […] as is the position
 
where there is a difference in treatment based on sex or sexual orientation, the principle of proportionality does not
 
merely require that the measure chosen is in principle suited for realizing the aim sought. It must also be shown
 
that it was necessary in order to achieve that aim to exclude certain categories of people”).
 
169 The Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico has stated that legal recognition of homoparental families, which
 
exist either through reproduction or adoption, does not disregard the child’s best interest. On the contrary, from
 
such recognition come a series of rights in favor of the child and duties for those who are his parents, since it is a
 
reality that such families exist and, therefore, must be protected by law: they are each as respectable as others Cf.
 
Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico, Action of Unconstitutionality A.I. 2/2010, August 16, 2010, para. 333.
 
49
 
Article 24, in conjunction with Article 1(1) of the American Convention, to the detriment of
 
Karen Atala Riffo.
 
5. Discriminatory treatment against the girls M., V. and R.
 
Arguments of the parties
 
147. In relation to Article 19 of the American Convention170, the Commission argued that
 
“the Supreme Court violated the girls’ best interest […] in the absence of determinations
 
based on evidence and specific facts.”
 
148. The representatives argued that the judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice had
 
injured the child’s best interest “when it ignored the right of the girls M., V., and R. not to
 
be separated from their family.” They added that children could not be discriminated against
 
based on their parents’ status.
 
149. The State indicated that the alleged violations in relation to the three girls “were
 
refuted from the moment it was demonstrated that said judgment was not the result of
 
discrimination based on sexual orientation, but rather of the analysis of specific facts proven
 
in the custody trial.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
150. The Court has already concluded that both the Judgment of the Supreme Court and
 
the decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, regarding provisional custody, constituted
 
discriminatory treatment against Ms. Atala (supra para. 146). Accordingly, it will proceed to
 
analyze whether said treatment, in turn, resulted in discrimination against the girls M., V.,
 
and R. In this regard, the Court considers that the prohibition of discrimination, in cases
 
related to minors, must be interpreted in light of Article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of
 
the Child, which states that:
 
1. States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to each child
 
within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child's or his or her parent's
 
or legal guardian's race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social
 
origin, property, disability, birth or other status.
 
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected against all forms
 
of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the
 
child's parents, legal guardians, or family members.
 
151. In this regard, the Court points out that children cannot be discriminated against
 
based on their own status and this prohibition extends also to the conditions of their parents
 
or family members, for example in this case the mother’s sexual orientation. The Committee
 
on the Rights of the Child has pointed out in its General Comment No. 7 that children may
 
suffer the consequences of discrimination against their parents, for example if they are born
 
out of wedlock or in other circumstances that deviate from traditional values 171.
 
152. On the other hand, regarding the relationship between the child’s best interest and
 
the prohibition of discrimination, the expert Cillero Bruñol stated that:
 
170 Article 19 of the American Convention establishes that “Every minor child has the right to the measures of
 
protection required by his condition as a minor on the part of his family, society and the State.”
 
171 Cf. United Nations, Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 7. Implementing Child
 
Rights in Early Childhood, CRC/C/GC/7, September 30, 2005, para. 12.
 
 
50
 
a decision justified with the child’s best interest, understood as the protection of his rights,
 
cannot at the same time expect to legitimize a discriminatory decision prima facie, or
 
in abstract, that affects the child’s right to be taken care of by his mother172.
 
153. For his part, the expert Robert Wintemute emphasized that:
 
“discrimination based on […] the sexual orientation of the child’s parent is never in the best
 
interest of the child” 173.
 
154. By having used the mother’s sexual orientation as grounds for its decision, the
 
Supreme Court, in turn, discriminated against the three girls, since it took into account
 
considerations it would not have used if the custody proceedings had been between two
 
heterosexual parents. In particular, this Court reiterates that the child’s best interest is a
 
guiding principle in the drafting of provisions and in their application in all aspects of the
 
child’s life. 174
 
155. Furthermore, the discriminatory treatment against the mother had repercussions for
 
the girls, since it was used as grounds to decide that they should not continue to live with
 
their mother. Thus, the effects of this decision were extended when the girls were separated
 
from their mother due to her sexual orientation. Therefore, the Court concludes that Article
 
24, in conjunction with Articles 19 and 1(1)of the American Convention, was violated in
 
detriment of the girls M., V., and R.
 
D. Right to private life and right to family life
 
Arguments of the parties
 
156. With respect to the alleged violation of Article 11175 of the American Convention, the
 
Commission argued that “the right to a private life encompasses all spheres of the intimate
 
realm and autonomy of an individual, including his or her personality, identity, decisions
 
over his or her sexual life, personal and family relations [, given that] sexual orientation
 
constitutes a fundamental component of an individual’s private life.” It held that “the State’s
 
interference in the private life of Karen Atala was arbitrary, since the custody decision was
 
based on discriminatory prejudices driven by her sexual orientation [….] and it also
 
arbitrarily interfered in her autonomy to make decisions on her personal life based on said
 
orientation. The latter […since] in the absence of objective reasons, the Supreme Court of
 
Justice, based on the expression of her sexual orientation, deprived her of the custody of
 
her daughters and a life in common with them, a fundamental aspect of her life plan.”
 
172 Written statement rendered by expert Miguel Cillero Bruñol, August 4, 2011 (Merits file, volume II, page
 
929).
 
173 Written statement rendered by expert Robert Wintemute, September 16, 2011 (Merits file, volume XI,
 
page 5355).
 
174 Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 137, opinion 2.
 
175 Article 11 of the Convention states that:
 
1. Everyone has the right to have his honor respected and his dignity recognized.
 
2. No one may be the object of arbitrary or abusive interference with his private life, his family, his
 
home or his correspondence, or of unlawful attacks on his honor or reputation.
 
3. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
 
51
 
157. For their part, the representatives argued that “the interference is arbitrary because
 
the only justification is the expression of the mother’s sexual orientation, which is part of
 
her personal identity, an essential characteristic of all individuals, which has no bearing
 
whatsoever on the daughters’ well-being.” The representatives pointed out that “there is no
 
question that both [Ms.] Atala and her daughters suffered arbitrary interference in their
 
private life.”
 
158. Furthermore, in relation to Articles 11(2) and 17176 of the American Convention, the
 
Commission and the representatives alleged “unlawful and arbitrary interference in the right
 
to private and family life, which extends to the development of relationships between
 
members of a family and the role of emotional relationships in the life project of each
 
member.” The representatives pointed out that “there is no single concept of family” and
 
that “[Ms.] Atala, her daughters and [Ms.] De Ramón undoubtedly constituted a family unit
 
which was broken up by decisions based on prejudice against Judge Atala’s expression of
 
her sexual orientation.”
 
159. The State argued that “in a custody trial, whose purpose is to consider which parent
 
shall take charge of the personal care of the children, the judge not only has the power but
 
also the obligation to assess each and every one of the specific conditions and
 
circumstances that determine the child’s best interest. [...] It is therefore inherent to the
 
custody trial […] that the judge may, according to law, investigate intimate details of the life
 
of the persons. It argued “that the pursuit of the child’s best interest must prevail over an
 
unalterable conception of the right to intimacy, since the realm of private life cannot be
 
excluded from the judge’s knowledge and consideration.” It added that “neither [the]
 
Supreme Court nor the other domestic courts have violated the right enshrined in Article
 
11(2)of the American Convention in the decisions on the custody trial […] but, on the
 
contrary, have merely issued rulings regarding considerations that are inherent to a trial of
 
that nature.”
 
160. Finally, the State argued that “the separation of the family is not attributable to the
 
actions of the Chilean courts [since] the task of the Chilean courts was precisely the
 
opposite, that is, responding to the petition of the parties […] to decide, according to the
 
girls’ best interest, which new family unit provided the best support for their development.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
161. Article 11 of the Convention prohibits all arbitrary or abusive interference in a
 
person’s private life, and encompasses various spheres of the intimate realm as well as the
 
private lives of their families. In that regard, the Court has held that the realm of privacy is
 
exempt and immune from abusive or arbitrary intrusion or aggression by third parties or by
 
the public authorities177.
 
162. Furthermore, regarding Article 11 of the American Convention, the Court has
 
specified that, although this provision is titled “Protection of Honor and Dignity” (in Spanish)
 
176 In this regard, Article 17 of the Convention states:
 
1. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by
 
society and the State.
 
177 Cf. Case of the Ituango Massacres v. Colombia. Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs.
 
Judgment of July 1, 2006 Series C No. 148, para. 194 and Case Fontevecchia and D`Amico, supra note 28, para.
 
48.
 
52
 
its content includes, among others, the protection of privacy178. Privacy is an ample concept
 
that is not subject to exhaustive definitions and includes, among other protected realms,
 
the sex life and the right to establish and develop relationships with other human beings.179
 
Thus, privacy includes the way in which the individual views himself and to what extent and
 
how he decides to project this view to others180.
 
163. The Court observes that the Commission’s arguments regarding the alleged violation
 
of Ms. Karen Atala’s right to privacy were focused on the judgment issued by the Supreme
 
Court. On their part, the representatives added the ruling on the provisional custody as
 
another fact that allegedly generated the violation of Ms. Atala’s right to privacy. Therefore,
 
these two facts will be analyzed.
 
164. The Court has established in its case law that the right to private life is not an
 
absolute right and, therefore, may be restricted by States provided that the intrusions are
 
neither abusive nor arbitrary. For this reason, these must be regulated by the law, pursue a
 
legitimate goal and comply with the requirements of suitability, necessity and
 
proportionality, in other words, they must be necessary in a democratic society181.
 
165. In this regard the Court emphasizes that Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation is part of her
 
private life, and therefore any interference in it must meet the standards of “suitability,
 
necessity, and proportionality.” This differs from the context of a custody proceeding, where
 
specific parental behaviors that have allegedly caused damage to the child may be analyzed
 
(supra paras. 109 and 111).
 
166. Given that the domestic courts gave importance to the issue of Ms. Atala’s sexual
 
orientation in the custody decision, they exposed different aspects of her private life
 
throughout the proceedings. The Court notes that the reason given by the courts for
 
interfering in Ms. Atala’s private life was the same one used to justify the discriminatory
 
treatment (supra para.107), namely, the alleged best interest of the three girls. The Court
 
considers that, although that principle is related in abstracto to a legitimate goal (supra
 
para.110), the measure was unsuitable and disproportionate to achieve that purpose, since
 
the domestic courts should have limited themselves to examining parental behavior– which
 
could be part of their private life – but without exposing and scrutinizing Ms. Atala’s sexual
 
orientation.
 
167. The Court finds that during the custody proceeding, based on a stereotyped vision on
 
the scope of Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation (supra para. 146), there was arbitrary
 
178 Cf. Case of the Massacres of Ituango v. Colombia, supra note 177, para. 193 and Case of Rosendo Cantú
 
et al. v. Mexico. Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of August 31, 2010. Series C No.
 
216, para. 119.
 
179 Cf. Case of Rosendo Cantú et al, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 119, and Case of
 
Fernández Ortega et al. v. Mexico. Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations, and Costs. Judgment of August 30,
 
2010 Series C No. 215, para. 129, quoting ECHR, Case of Dudgeon v. United Kingdom, (No. 7525/76), Judgment of
 
October 22, 1981, para. 41, Case of X and Y v. The Netherlands, (No. 8978/80), Judgment of March 26, 1985,
 
para. 22. Case of Niemietz, supra note 159, para. 29, and Case of Peck, supra note 159, para. 57.
 
180 Cf. Case Rosendo Cantú et al., supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 119, and Case
 
Fernández Ortega et al., supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 129, citing ECHR, Case Niemietz, supra
 
note 159, para. 29, and Case Peck, supra note 159, para. 57.
 
181 Cf. Case of Tristán Donoso v. Panama. Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment
 
January 27, 2009. Series C No.193, para. 56 and Case of Escher et al. v. Brazil. Preliminary Objection, Merits,
 
Reparations and Costs. Judgment of July 6, 2009. Series C No. 200, para. 116.
 
53
 
interference in her private life, given that sexual orientation is part of a person’s intimacy
 
and is not relevant when examining aspects related to an individual’s suitability as a parent.
 
Therefore, the Court concludes that the State violated Article 11(2), in conjunction with
 
Article 1(1)of the American Convention, to the detriment of Karen Atala Riffo.
 
168. Furthermore, the Court notes that one of the central arguments considered in the
 
judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice and the decision of the Juvenile Court of Villarica
 
in the provisional custody proceeding, was Ms. Atala’s cohabitation with her lesbian partner
 
(supra paras. 41 and 56). Accordingly, this Court considers it essential to examine the
 
alleged violation of the right to family life alleged by the Commission and the
 
representatives.
 
169. In this regard, the Court reiterates that Article 11(2) of the American Convention is
 
closely linked to the right to protection of the family and to live in a family, recognized in
 
Article 17 of the Convention, which requires the State not only to provide and directly
 
implement measures of protection for children, but also to favor, in the broadest possible
 
terms, the development and strength of the family unit182. The Court has established that,
 
under certain conditions, the separation of children from their family constitutes a violation
 
of said right183, since even legal separations of a child from his family may only proceed if
 
these are duly justified184.
 
170. With regard to Articles 11(2) and 17(1) of the American Convention, every person’s
 
right to protection against arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her family is
 
implicitly a part of the right to protection of the family, and is also explicitly recognized by
 
Article 12(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,185 V of the American Declaration
 
of Rights and Duties of Man,186 17 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political
 
Rights,187 and 8 of the European Human Rights Convention.188 These provisions are
 
especially significant when separation of a child from his family is being analyzed189.
 
171. According to the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, the mutual
 
enjoyment of harmonious relations between parents and children is a fundamental
 
182 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 66 and Case Chitay Nech et al., supra note Error!
 
Bookmark not defined., para. 157.
 
183 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, paras. 71 and 72 and Case Chitay Nech et al., supra note
 
Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 157.
 
184 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 77.
 
185 Article 12(1) states that “[n]o one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family,
 
home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection
 
of the law against such interference or attacks.”
 
186 Article V of the American Declaration of Rights and Duties of Man states that “every person has the right
 
to the protection of the law against abusive attacks upon his honor, his reputation and his private and family life.”
 
187 Article 17 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights states that “[n]o one shall be subjected
 
to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on
 
his honour and reputation.”
 
188 In this regard, Article 8(1) of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
 
Freedoms states that: “[e]veryone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his
 
correspondence.” Likewise, Article 8(2) states that “[t]here shall be no interference by a public authority with the
 
exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the
 
interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder
 
or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.”
 
189 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 71.
 
54
 
component of family life,190 and the purpose of Article 8 of the European Convention on
 
Human Rights is to protect individuals against arbitrary interference by public authorities
 
and to require the State to take affirmative measures to promote effective respect for family
 
life.191
 
172. With regard to the concept of family, various human rights organs created by
 
treaties, have stated that there is no single model for a family, which may have many
 
variations192. Similarly, the European Court has interpreted the concept of “family” in broad
 
terms. With regard to different sex couples, it has repeatedly indicated that:
 
The notion of family [...]is not confined solely to families based on marriage and may encompass other de
 
facto ties where the parties are living together out of wedlock. A child born of such a relationship is ipso
 
jure part of that “family” unit from the moment and by the very fact of his birth. Thus there exists
 
between the child and his parents a bond amounting to family life. The Court further recalls that the
 
mutual enjoyment by parent and child of each other's company constitutes a fundamental element of
 
family life, even if the relationship between the parents has broken down, and domestic measures
 
hindering such enjoyment amount to an interference with the right protected by Article 8 of the
 
Convention193.
 
190 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 72, citing ECHR, Case of Buchberger v. Austria, (No.
 
32899/96). Judgment of December 20, 2001. Final, March 20, 2003, para. 35; Case of T and K v. Finland,
 
Judgment of July 12, 2001, para. 151; Case of Elsholz v. Germany, Judgment of July 13, 2000, para. 43; Case of
 
Bronda v. Italy, Judgment of June 9, 1998, para. 51; Case of Johansen v. Norway, Judgment of August 7, 1996,
 
para. 52.
 
191 Cf. ECHR, Case of Olsson v. Sweden, Judgment of March 24, 1988, para. 81. 192 Cf. United Nations, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, General
 
Recommendation No. 21 (13th period of sessions, 1994). Equality in marriage and in family relationships, para. 13
 
(“The form and the concept of a family can vary from State to State and even between regions within a State.
 
Whatever form it takes, and whatever the legal system, religion, custom or tradition within the country, the
 
treatment of women in the family, both at law and in private, must conform to the principles of equality and justice
 
for all people, as Article 2 of the Convention requires”); Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment
 
No. 7. Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood, supra note 171, paras. 15 and 19 (“The Committee
 
recognizes that ‘family’ here refers to a variety of arrangements that can provide for young children’s care,
 
nurturance and development, including the nuclear family, the extended family and other traditional and modern
 
community-based arrangements, provided that these are consistent with children’s rights and best interests.
 
[…]The Committee notes that in practice family patterns are variable and changing in many regions, as is the
 
availability of informal networks of support for parents, with an overall trend towards greater diversity in family
 
size, parental roles and arrangements for bringing up children”); Human Rights Committee, General Comment No.
 
19 (39th period of sessions, 1990). The family (Article 23), HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol.I), para. 2 (“The Committee
 
notes that the concept of family may differ in some respects from State to State, and even between regions within
 
a State, and that it is therefore not possible to give the concept a standard definition”), and United Nations, C
 
Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 16 (32nd period of sessions, 1988). Right to Privacy (Article 17),
 
HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), para. 5 (“Regarding the term "family", the objectives of the Covenant require that for
 
the purposes of Article 17, this term be given a broad interpretation that includes all those comprising the family,
 
as understood in the society of the State Party concerned.”)
 
193 ECHR, Case of Schalk and Kopf, supra note 158, para. 91 (“the notion of family […] is not confined to
 
marriage-based relationships and may encompass other of facto “family” ties where the parties are living together
 
out of wedlock. A child born out of such a relationship is ipso jure part of that “family” unit from the moment and
 
by the very fact of his birth. Thus there exists between the child and his parents a bond amounting to family life.
 
The Court further recalls that the mutual enjoyment by parent and child of each other's company constitutes a
 
fundamental element of family life, even if the relationship between the parents has broken down, and domestic
 
measures hindering such enjoyment amount to an interference with the right protected by Article 8 of the
 
Convention”), citing ECHR, Case Elsholz, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 43; Case Keegan,
 
supra note 166, para. 44, and Case of Johnston et al. v. Ireland, (No. 9697/82), Judgment of December 18, 1986,
 
para. 56; see also ECHR, Case of Alim V. Russia (No. 39417/07), Judgment of September 27, 2011, para. 70; Case
 
of Berrehab v. The Netherlands, (No. 10730/84), Judgment of June 21, 1988, para. 21, and Case of L. v.
 
Netherlands, (No. 45582/99), Judgment of June 1, 2004. Final, September 1, 2004, para. 36.
 
55
 
173. In the Case of X, Y and Z v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights,
 
following an ample concept of family, acknowledged that a transsexual, their female partner
 
and a child may comprise a family, stating that:
 
When deciding whether a relationship can be said to amount to “family life”, a number of factors may be
 
relevant, including whether the couple live together, the length of their relationship and whether they
 
have demonstrated their commitment to each other by having children together or by any other means194.
 
174. In the first place, and with respect to the conventional protection of same-sex
 
couples in the Case Schalk and Kopf v. Austria, the European Court revised its case law in
 
force at that time, which only accepted that the emotional and sexual relationship of a
 
same-sex couple constitutes “private life,” but had not considered what constituted “family
 
life,” despite the applicants having lived together in a long-term relationship195. Applying a
 
broader concept of family, the European Court established that “a cohabiting same-sex
 
couple living in a stable de facto partnerships, falls within the notion of ‘family life’, just as
 
the relationship of a different-sex couple in the same situation would196,” considering it
 
“artificial to maintain the view that, in contrast to a different-sex couple, a same-sex couple
 
cannot enjoy ‘family life’ for the purposes of Article 8” of the European Convention197.
 
175. The Court emphasizes that, unlike the provisions of the European Convention, which
 
only protect the right to family life under Article 8, the American Convention contains two
 
provisions that protect family life in a complementary manner. Indeed, the Court considers
 
that the imposition of a single concept of family should be analyzed not only as possible
 
arbitrary interference with private life, in accordance with Article 11(2) of the American
 
Convention, but also, because of the impact it may have on a family unit, in light of Article
 
17 of said Convention.
 
176. In the instant case, the Court notes that from November 2002, up until the decision
 
on provisional custody was issued, in May 2003, there was a close relationship between Ms.
 
Atala, Ms. De Ramón, Ms. Atala’s older son and the three girls. In this regard, Ms. Atala
 
stated that “we were an absolutely normal family. A boy, three girls, a cat, a male dog, a
 
female dog, a house, we had projects as a family. We had dreams as a family”198. In
 
addition, Ms. De Ramón stated that the “life of the five family members, six [with her …]
 
was almost idyllic, since [they] had a relationship based on plenty of communication, at
 
least among the women in the family”199.
 
194 Cf. ECHR, Case of X, Y and Z v. United Kingdom, (No. 21830/93), Judgment of April 22, 1997, para. 36
 
(“When deciding whether a relationship can be said to amount to ‘family life’, a number of factors may be relevant,
 
including whether the couple live together, the length of their relationship and whether they have demonstrated
 
their commitment to each other by having children together or by any other means”); ECHR, Case of Marckx V.
 
Belgium, (No. 6833/74), Judgment of June 13, 1979, para. 31; Case of Keegan, supra note 166, para. 44, and
 
Case of Kroon et al., supra note 166, para. 30.
 
195 ECHR, Case Schalk and Kopf, supra note 158, para. 92 (“the Court's case-law has only accepted that the
 
emotional and sexual relationship of a same-sex couple constitutes ‘private life’ but has not found that it
 
constitutes ‘family life’, even where a long-term relationship of cohabiting partners was at stake”).
 
196 ECHR, Case Schalk and Kopf, supra note 158, para. 94 (“a cohabiting same-sex couple living in a stable of
 
facto partnership, falls within the notion of ‘family life’, just as the relationship of a different-sex couple in the same
 
situation would”) and Case P.B. and J.S. v. Austria, (No. 18984/02), Judgment of July 22, 2010. Final, October 22,
 
2010, para. 30.
 
197 ECHR, Case Schalk and Kopf, supra note 158, para. 94 (“the Court considers it artificial to maintain the
 
view that, in contrast to a different-sex couple, a same-sex couple cannot enjoy “family life” for the purposes of
 
Article 8”) and the Case of P.B. and J.S., supra note 196, para. 30.
 
198 Statement by Ms. Karen Atala Riffo before the Inter-American Court at the public hearing in the present
 
case.
 
199 Statement by Ms. Emma of Ramón, August 4, 2011 (Merits file, volume II, page 762).
 
56
 
177. Therefore, it is clear that they had created a family unit which, as such, was
 
protected under Articles 11(2) and 17(1) of the American Convention, since they shared
 
their lives, with frequent contact and a personal and emotional closeness between Ms.
 
Atala, her partner, her eldest son and the three girls. The aforementioned, without prejudice
 
to the fact that the girls shared another family environment with their father.
 
178. This Court has already concluded that the grounds presented both by the Supreme
 
Court of Justice and by the Juvenile Court of Villarica in the provisional custody decision
 
were not an appropriate measure to protect the girls’ best interest (supra para. 146), which
 
also had the result of separating the family constituted by the mother, her partner and the
 
girls. This amounts to arbitrary interference with the right to private and family life.
 
Therefore, the Court rules that the State violated Articles 11(2) and 17(1), in conjunction
 
with Article 1(1) of the American Convention to the detriment of Karen Atala Riffo and the
 
girls M., V. and R. Regarding the latter, said violations of family life also occurred in relation
 
to Article 19 of the Convention, given that they were separated in an unjustified manner
 
from one of their family environments.
 
E. Judicial guarantees and judicial protection
 
1. Judicial guarantees and judicial protection regarding Ms. Atala
 
Arguments of the parties
 
179. The Commission and the representatives argued the alleged violation of the judicial
 
guarantee of impartiality due to the judges’ stereotyped approach to the case. The
 
Commission pointed out that given “their consideration of [Ms. Atala’s] sexual orientation as
 
a key element in her fitness as a mother, together with the evident use of discriminatory
 
prejudices,” it may be concluded that Ms. Atala “was not afforded the guarantees of
 
impartiality.” The representatives added that the annulment of the Appeals Court judgment
 
by the Supreme Court of Justice was a violation of judicial independence. The Commission
 
and the representatives argued that all the aforementioned affects access to justice, for
 
which reason they alleged the violation of Article 8(1)200 and Article 25201 of the American
 
Convention.
 
180. Furthermore, the representatives argued that the Supreme Court “admitted [d] a
 
remedy of complaint […], in a case that was inadmissible, breaching the rules of due
 
process and the [internal objective] independence of judges” and by ordering a disciplinary
 
sanction to be applied to the Judges of the Court of Appeals of Temuco “for having a specific
 
200 Article 8(1)of the American Convention(Right to a Fair Trial) establishes that:
 
1. Every person has the right to a hearing, with due guarantees and within a reasonable time, by a
 
competent, independent, and impartial tribunal, previously established by law, in the substantiation of any
 
accusation of a criminal nature made against him or for the determination of his rights and obligations of a
 
civil, labor, fiscal, or any other nature.
 
201 Article 25(1)of the American Convention(Right to Judicial Protection) provides:
 
1. Everyone has the right to simple and prompt recourse, or any other effective recourse, to a
 
competent court or tribunal for protection against acts that violate his fundamental rights recognized by
 
the constitution or laws of the state concerned or by this Convention, even though such violation may
 
have been committed by persons acting in the course of their official duties.
 
57
 
interpretation” of the Civil Code. They considered that “through a remedy which by legal
 
stipulation does not constitute an instance, as is the case of the recurso de queja (remedy
 
of complaint), the Supreme Court heard and issued a ruling in a case that had already been
 
decided and processed by the pertinent authorities before the respective competent courts.”
 
Moreover, the representatives argued a violation of the right to judicial fairness because the
 
decision of the Supreme Court “is based on prejudice and lack[ed] a rational and juridical
 
basis.” Finally, they indicated that Ms. Atala does not wish “once again [...] to subject [the
 
girls] to the pressure of a custody trial [...] renouncing the return [... of] the girls to the
 
family unit with their mother.”
 
181. The State argued that “the Supreme Court of Justice did not exceed its powers, nor
 
did it abuse them when, after confirming the grave misconduct or abuse, and endorsing the
 
remedy of complaint, it decided to annul the appealed ruling, issuing instead a replacement
 
judgment.” On the other hand, the State denied a violation of Article 25(1) of the
 
Convention with the argument that the petitioner “could have and can still try to revoke the
 
decision of the Supreme Court by filing […] a new custody petition regarding the girls, with
 
the only requirement of proving that any of the circumstances that prompted the judgment
 
has changed,” given that the ruling that grants custody to the girls’ father “only has formal
 
res judicata.” It concluded that “in order to affect the right to appeal against a judicial
 
ruling, it is necessary to prove the existence of a violation of the due process when this was
 
issued, without the aggrieved party having a means of appeal, whatever that may be,
 
through which it may revert the alleged breach of fundamental rights.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
182. In the instant case, the Supreme Court of Justice considered that the judges of the
 
Appeals Court of Temuco “committed a fault or abuse both in applying the legal provisions
 
that govern the matter, and in assessing the background of the case in which they issued
 
the judgment that gave rise to the remedy [of complaint]” 202.
 
183. In this regard, the Court noted that the argument of the representatives regarding
 
the wrongful acceptance of the remedy of complaint by the Supreme Court of Justice is
 
directly related to the alleged non-existence of a grave fault by the Court of Appeals of
 
Temuco. In this regard, it should be noted that the recurso de queja (remedy of complaint)
 
in Chile is established in Article 545 of the Organic Code of Courts.203 It is a disciplinary
 
202 Judgment of the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile, May 31, 2004 (File of appendices to the petition,
 
volume V, page 2673).
 
203 Cf. Article 545 of the Organic Code of Courts states: The sole purpose of the recurso of queja (remedy of
 
complaint or complaint appeal) is to correct serious faults or abuses committed in the issuance of a jurisdictional
 
ruling. It shall only be admissible when the fault or abuse is committed in an interlocutory decision that puts an
 
end to the case or makes its continuation impossible, and there is no ordinary or extraordinary remedy available,
 
without prejudice to the ability of the Supreme Court to act ex officio in the exercise of its disciplinary powers.
 
Final, first or single-instance rulings issued by arbitrators are exempted, in which case the recurso of queja shall be
 
admissible, in addition to the cassation appeal with respect to procedure. The decision that accepts the recurso of
 
queja shall contain precise considerations to demonstrate the fault or abuse, as well as the obvious and serious
 
errors and omissions that constitute them and that exist in the decision that produces the recurso, and shall
 
determine the measures conducive to remedying said fault or abuse. In no case may it modify, amend, or
 
invalidate judicial decisions with respect to which the law provides ordinary or extraordinary jurisdictional
 
remedies, unless a recurso of queja filed against a first or single instance final decision issued by arbiters or
 
arbitrators is involved. In the event that a superior court of justice, making use of its disciplinary authorities,
 
annuls a jurisdictional ruling it must apply the disciplinary measure or measures considered appropriate. In the
 
event that a superior court, making use of its disciplinary powers, invalidates a jurisdictional decision, it shall apply
 
the relevant disciplinary measure or measures. In such case, the chamber shall provide that the full court is
 
informed regarding the history for purposes of imposing the appropriate disciplinary measures, given the nature of
 
the faults or abuses, which may not be less than a private admonition” (Merits file volume XI, page 5398).
 
58
 
remedy that has its source in Article 82 of the Constitution204 and, in general is based on
 
the jurisprudential practice of the Superior Courts of Justice, the Courts of Appeals, and the
 
Supreme Court of Justice.205
 
184. In the opinion of the expert Marín, the practice of using the remedy of complaint as
 
a means to have judgments revised distorted the procedural system by using the cassation
 
appeal, as the natural jurisdictional appeal established in domestic law, to correct the errors
 
of lower court judges.206 According to the expert, the complaint appeal caused de facto the
 
creation of a third instance, where the Supreme Court distorted the facts proven in the
 
respective court and the way in which the judges had assessed said evidence.207
 
185. Furthermore, the Court notes that, according to the Chilean legal doctrine forwarded
 
by the State, the complaint appeal is defined as “the procedural juridical act directly
 
presented by a party before a higher Court and against the judge or judges who issued a
 
ruling in a given proceeding containing a serious fault or abuse, and requesting a prompt
 
remedy to the wrongdoing that prompted the filing of their appeal through its correction,
 
annulment, or invalidation, without detriment to the application of the appropriate
 
disciplinary sanctions, according to that Court, regarding the judge or judges against whom
 
the appeal was filed.”208 Said remedy is filed “directly before a Court of higher rank than the
 
one that issued the ruling with the serious fault or abuse, so that it may be considered and
 
resolved by that court.” It is not filed against a ruling, but against the judge or judges that
 
issued the ruling with a serious fault or abuse, so that it may be modified, corrected, or left
 
without effect. The appeal has not been “created to correct simple errors of interpretation,
 
but judicial faults or abuses that fall within the scope of the disciplinary jurisdiction of the
 
higher court. Therefore, it does not constitute an instance for the revision of all matters de
 
facto and de iure, but it only allows the superior court to examine if a serious fault or abuse
 
was committed. The higher court is empowered to revoke, correct, or invalidate the
 
ruling209. The fault or abuse committed by a judge may stem from the formal breach of the
 
law, an erroneous interpretation of the law, or a faulty assessment of the background of the
 
proceedings210.
 
204 Article 82 of the Political Constitution states that “the Supreme Court is entrusted with the executive,
 
correctional and economic supervision of all the Courts of the nation. The Constitutional Court, the Elections
 
Qualifying Court and the Regional Electoral Courts are exempted from this norm” (Merits file, volume XI, page
 
5393).
 
205 Cf. Written report of the expert Dr. Juan Carlos Marín González on complaint appeals in Chile (Merits file,
 
volume XI, page 5393 and 5411).
 
206 Cf. Written report of the expert Dr. Juan Carlos Marín González on complaint appeals in Chile (Merits file,
 
volume XI, page 5411).
 
207 In this regard, expert Marín cited the legislative reasons for the approval of law 19.374 of 1995, which
 
modified the complaint appeal and jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of Justice, to explain that Chilean
 
legislators modified the complaint appeal with the objective of limiting this disciplinary recourse and preventing the
 
distortion of the procedural system and of the jurisdictional function of the superior courts of justice, in order to
 
prevent abusive practices and, therefore, the revision of trials through a third instance that openly breaches the
 
principle of bilateralism of the hearing. Cf. Written report of the expert Dr. Juan Carlos Marín González on the
 
complaint appeal in Chile (Merits file, volume XI, page 5397, 5398, and 5400).
 
208 Cf. Mario Mosquera Ruíz, Cristián Maturana Miquel, Los Recursos Procesales, 2010, Juridical Editorial of
 
Chile, Santiago, Chile, page 383, as documentary evidence enclosed by the State with the brief on final arguments
 
(Merits file, volume XII, page 5945).
 
209 Cf. Mario Mosquera Ruíz and Cristián Maturana Miquel, Los Recursos Procesales, pages 383 and 384,
 
supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., pages 5945 and 5946.
 
210 Cf. Mario Mosquera Ruíz, Cristián Maturana Miquel, Los Recursos Procesales, page 387, supra note Error!
 
Bookmark not defined., volume XII, page 5949.
 
59
 
186. In considering whether or not, in this case, the guarantees of judicial independence
 
were ignored by accepting the remedy of complaint, the Court recalls that one of the main
 
objectives of the separation of public powers is to guarantee the independence of judges,
 
for the purpose of preventing the judicial system and its members from being subject to
 
wrongful restrictions in the exercise of their role by bodies foreign to the Judicial Power or
 
even by senior judges that carry out review or appeal duties.211 Moreover, the guarantee of
 
judicial independence includes guarantees against external pressures212, and therefore the
 
State must abstain from undue interference with the Judiciary or its members, that is, in
 
relation to a specific judge, and must prevent such intrusions and investigate and sanction
 
those who commit them.213
 
187. The Court considers that in this case there are not sufficient evidentiary elements to
 
infer the existence of external pressures against the judges who considered the case of the
 
ruling against Ms. Atala. On the other hand, given that the judges of the Court of Appeals of
 
Temuco who were sanctioned for the remedy of complaint are not alleged victims in the
 
present case, this limits any ruling that the Court may issue in relation to a possible
 
violation of Article 8(1) of the Convention for said decision to sanction.
 
188. Finally, the Court has previously emphasized that, since it is not a fourth instance, it
 
cannot assess the evidence regarding which of the parents of the three girls offers them a
 
better home (supra para. 66). Similarly, since this Court is not a fourth instance, it cannot
 
issue a ruling on the dispute between different sectors of the local doctrine on the scope of
 
domestic law regarding the requirements for the admissibility of a remedy of complaint.
 
189. On the other hand, regarding the Supreme Court’s impartiality in issuing its decision
 
on the remedy of complaint, the Court recalls that judges who intervene in a particular
 
dispute are required to approach the facts of the case impartially, without subjectivity or
 
prejudice and, at the same time, offer sufficient guarantees of an objective nature that
 
would eliminate any concerns that a defendant or the community might have regarding a
 
lack of impartiality. While personal or subjective impartiality is presumed unless there is
 
evidence to the contrary, for example proof that a member of a court or the judge has
 
shown personal prejudice or partialities against the parties, the so-called objective evidence
 
consists in determining whether the questioned judge provided convincing elements that
 
would dispel any legitimate fears or well-based suspicions of prejudice regarding their
 
conduct. Thus, a judge must appear to act without being subject to influences, incentives,
 
211 Cf. Case of Apitz Barbera et al. (“First Court of Administrative Disputes”) v. Venezuela, para. 55 and Case
 
of Reverón Trujillo v. Venezuela, para. 67.
 
212 Cf. Case of the Constitutional Court v. Peru, Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of January 31,
 
2001. Series C No. 71, para. 75, and Case of Reverón Trujillo, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para.
 
80. See also ECHR. Case of Campbell and Fell v. the United Kingdom, (No. 7819/77; 7878/77), Judgment of June
 
28, 1984, para. 78, and Case of Langborger v. Sweden, (No. 11179/84), Judgment of June 22, 1989, para. 32. See
 
also Principles 2, 3, and 4 of the Basic Principles of the United National regarding the Independence of the
 
Judiciary, adopted by the Seventh United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of
 
Offenders, held in Milan on August 26-September 6, 1985, and confirmed by the General Assembly in resolutions
 
40/32 of November 29 1985 and 40/146 of December 13, 1985.
 
213 Cf. Case of Reverón Trujillo supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 146.
 
60
 
pressures, threats, or interference, direct or indirect,214 but instead only and exclusively
 
according to the Law.215
 
190. The Inter-American Court points out that, while it is true that in the case at hand
 
some violations to the Convention have been declared, a violation of Article 8(1) of the
 
Convention for the alleged lack of judicial impartiality must be established based on specific,
 
concrete evidentiary elements that indicate a situation in which the judges have clearly
 
allowed themselves to be influenced by aspects or criteria outside of the legal provisions.
 
191. The Court finds that neither the Commission nor the representatives have provided
 
specific evidence to disprove the presumption of the judges’ subjective impartiality. Nor are
 
there any convincing elements that might call into question the objective impartiality of the
 
Villarica Court’s decision regarding provisional custody or of the judgment of the Supreme
 
Court. An interpretation of the provisions of the Chilean Civil Code in a manner contrary to
 
the American Convention in matters of child custody involving a homosexual individual is
 
not enough, in itself, for this Court to declare a lack of objective impartiality.
 
192. Therefore, the Court considers that the State did not violate the judicial guarantees
 
recognized in Article 8(1) of the Convention, in relation to the decision of the Supreme
 
Court of Justice and the Villarrica Court in this case.
 
2. Right of the girls M., V., and R. to be heard and to have their opinions be taken into
 
consideration
 
Arguments of the parties
 
193. The Commission noted as “particularly serious in the custody proceedings, the
 
Supreme Court’s failure to take the girls’ preferences and needs into account, in contrast
 
what occurred in the lower courts.” It added that “the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile
 
made no efforts to hear the girls.”
 
194. The representatives argued that even though “there are procedural mechanisms
 
carefully designed to make sure that children’s views are taken into consideration in the
 
decisions that affect them and that decisions are in fact made in their interest, before that
 
of any other person that intervenes[,] [t]he Supreme Court completely ignored these
 
mechanisms and arbitrarily decided to give greater weight to opinions based on prejudice
 
and stereotypes, to the detriment of the expert opinion of professionals and, even more
 
important, of the girls themselves, unlike the action of the lower-instance courts.”
 
195. The State indicated that “in the context of considering a mechanism of appeal, such
 
as a remedy of complaint, there is no procedural opportunity to repeat the statements given
 
by the girls, and this is unnecessary based on due process. From the standpoint of the girls’
 
interest and protection it is counterproductive, as well as unnecessary, to require them to
 
make another statement in the same proceedings regarding their parents’ separation and
 
their desire to live with one of them, thereby increasing their level of victimization.” The
 
State added that “the girls were heard by the lower courts and the Supreme Court had
 
access to these prior statements.” Furthermore, it indicated that, “on the other hand, the
 
214 Principle 2 of the Basic Principles of the United Nations regarding the Independence of the Judiciary, supra
 
note 212.
 
215 Case of Apitz Barbera et al. supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 56.
 
61
 
principle of recognizing the girls’ autonomy and subjectivity in no case implies, nor can it
 
seek to impose upon them, the final responsibility of deciding their fate. […] When there is
 
conflict between the views and wishes of the boy, girl, or teenager and their “best interest”,
 
[...], and their compatibility is not possible, their interest must necessarily prevail over their
 
wishes, since otherwise the special regimen of protection they enjoy would no longer have a
 
reason to exist.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
196. The Court emphasizes that children enjoy the rights established in the American
 
Convention, in addition to the special measures of protection contemplated in 19 of the
 
Convention, which must be defined according to the circumstances of each specific case.216
 
In the instant case, the Court notes that Article 8(1) of the American Convention embodies
 
every person’s the right to be heard, including children, in proceedings in which their rights
 
are determined. This right must be interpreted in light of Article 12 of the Convention on the
 
Rights of the Child,217 which contains appropriate stipulations on the child’s right to be
 
heard, for the purpose of facilitating the child’s intervention according to his age and
 
maturity and ensuring that it does not harm his genuine interest218.
 
197. Specifically, General Comment No. 12 of 2009 of the United Nations Committee on
 
the Rights of the Child emphasizes the relationship between the “best interest of the child”
 
and the right to be heard, when it states that “there can be no correct application of Article
 
3 if the components of Article 12 are not respected [(best interest of the child)]. Likewise,
 
Article 3 reinforces the functionality of Article 12 facilitating the essential role of children in
 
all decisions affecting their lives.” 219
 
198. In order to determine the scope of the terms described in Article 12 of that
 
Convention, the Committee clarified a number of points such as: i) “States parties cannot
 
begin with the assumption that a child is incapable of expressing her or his own views;”220
 
ii) “it is not necessary that the child has comprehensive knowledge of all aspects of the
 
matter affecting her or him, but that she or he has sufficient understanding to be capable of
 
216 Case of Gelman v. Uruguay, Merits and Reparations, Judgment of February 24, 2011, Series C No. 221,
 
para. 121.
 
217 Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states: 1. States Parties shall assure to the child
 
who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the
 
child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child. 2. For
 
this purpose, the child shall in particular be provided the opportunity to be heard in any judicial and administrative
 
proceedings affecting the child, either directly, or through a representative or an appropriate body, in a manner
 
consistent with the procedural rules of national law.
 
218 Cf. Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 99. For its part, the United Nations, Committee on
 
the Rights of the Child has established that the right "to be heard in any judicial and administrative proceedings
 
affecting the child" implies that “this provision applies to all relevant judicial proceedings affecting the child,
 
without limitation”. United Nations, Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12 (2009). The
 
right of the child to be heard, CRC/C/GC/12, July 20, 2009, para. 32. In particular, UNICEF has indicated that “‘any
 
judicial […] proceedings affecting the child’ covers a very wide range of court hearings, including all civil
 
proceedings such as divorce, custody, care and adoption proceedings, name-changing, judicial applications relating
 
to place of residence, religion, education, disposal of money and so forth, judicial decision-making on nationality,
 
immigration and refugee status, and criminal proceedings; it also covers States’ involvement in international
 
courts.” UNICEF, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Third edition fully
 
revised) 2007, p. 156.
 
219 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 74.
 
220 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 20
 
62
 
appropriately forming her or his own views on the matter”221; iii) the child can express her
 
or his views without pressure and can choose whether or not she or he wants to exercise
 
her or his right to be heard; iv) “implementation of the right of the child to express her or
 
his views requires that the child be informed about the matters, options and possible
 
decisions to be taken and their consequences by those who are responsible for hearing the
 
child, and by the child’s parents or guardian;”222 v) “the capacity of the child […]has to be
 
assessed in order to give due weight to her or his views, or to communicate to the child the
 
way in which those views have influenced the outcome of the process;”223 vi) “children’s
 
levels of understanding are not uniformly linked to their biological age,” for which reason
 
the maturity of the child must be determined based on “the capacity […]to express their
 
views on issues in a reasonable and independent manner” 224.
 
199. On the other hand, the Court reiterates that children exercise their rights
 
progressively as they develop a greater level of personal autonomy225. Consequently, those
 
responsible for applying the law, whether in the administrative or judicial sphere, must take
 
into account the specific conditions of the child and his or her best interests to decide on the
 
child’s participation, as appropriate, in determining his or her rights. This consideration will
 
seek as much access as possible by the minor to the examination of his or her own case226.
 
Likewise, the Court considers that children should be informed of their right to be heard
 
directly, or through a representative, if they so wish. In this regard, where a conflict of
 
interests arises between the mother and the father, the State must guarantee, as far as
 
possible, that the child’s interests are represented by someone outside said conflict.
 
200. In this regard, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has emphasized that Article
 
12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child not only establishes the right of each child
 
to express his views in all matters affecting him, but also includes the subsequent right to
 
have these views taken into consideration, according to the child’s age and maturity227. It is
 
not sufficient to listen to the child; the child’s views must be seriously considered when he
 
or she is capable of forming his or her own opinion, and for this reason the views of the
 
child must be assessed on a case-by-case basis228. If the child is capable of forming his or
 
her own views in a reasonable and independent manner, the decision maker must consider
 
the child’s views as a significant factor in the settlement of the issue229. Therefore, in the
 
context of judicial decisions on custody, all legislation on separation and divorce must
 
protect the child’s right to be heard by those responsible for making decisions230.
 
201. In the instant case, the Court notes that on April 8, 2003 the Juvenile Court of
 
Villarrica heard M., V., and R., in a private hearing and that “records of the private hearing
 
221 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 21
 
222 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 25
 
223 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 28
 
224 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 30
 
225 Cf. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 7, supra note 171, para. 17.
 
226 Advisory Opinion OC-17/02, supra note 122, para. 102
 
227 Cf. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 15.
 
228 Cf. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, paras. 28 y 29.
 
229 Cf. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 44.
 
230 Cf. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, paras. 28 y 29.
 
63
 
were kept in a closed envelope in the Court’s merits box”231. In addition, the ruling on the
 
provisional custody petition by the Juvenile Court of Villarrica on May 2, 2003, stated
 
“[t]hat, as recorded in the main custody file, the girls were heard at a private hearing” 232.
 
202. For its part, the judgment of the lower court indicated “[i]t is proven in the records
 
kept in the court’s safe that the minors were heard by this [Court]. In this hearing it was
 
confirmed that the three minors wish for their parents to get back together, and in the last
 
of the hearings held on October 8, 2003, [R.] and [V.] expressed their desire to go back to
 
living with their mother, and in the case of [M.] the court only detected a slight preference
 
for the mother figure”233. Furthermore, the Court clarified that “the hearings ordered to
 
listen to the girls had the exclusive purpose of complying with the mandate of […] Article 12
 
of the Convention of the Rights of the Child and are simply an element to be considered, but
 
they do not determine the decision […], by reason of their young age [the girls] are not in a
 
position to issue a legally valid opinion regarding their situation and considering also that
 
the opinion of the minors can be “affected artificially by outside factors that influence them,
 
distort them, or make them unsuited to the proposed goal”234. Finally, the Juvenile Court
 
took into consideration a series of psychological reports which it ordered to determine the
 
girls’ psychological and emotional status235.
 
203. In this regard, the Court finds that the first instance court in the custody proceeding
 
complied with the obligations arising from the child’s right to be heard in a judicial
 
proceeding that affects them, since it is clearly stated that the views of the three girls were
 
taken into account, bearing in mind their maturity and capacity at that time.
 
204. On the other hand, the Court notes that there is no evidence in the custody case file
 
stating that the girls were heard again by the Supreme Court of Justice of Chile in the
 
context of the decision on the remedy of complaint, nor is there any mention in the ruling
 
issued by the Supreme Court regarding the decision to set aside the wishes expressed by
 
the girls during the proceedings.
 
205. In the present case, the Court takes note of the unique nature of the remedy of
 
complaint, which is mainly a disciplinary recourse against lower court judges and in which
 
no evidence other than at already presented during the entire custody hearing is gathered
 
(supra para. 185). Likewise, this Court cautions that a child must not be interviewed more
 
often than necessary, particularly when disturbing events are investigated, since the
 
process of “hearing” a child may be difficult and may cause traumatic effects in the child236.
 
Therefore, the Court does not consider that the Supreme Court needed to hold a new
 
hearing in the context of the decision on the remedy of complaint to hear the girls express
 
their preferences regarding which parent they would rather live with, if there were already
 
several pieces of evidence in the custody case file that confirmed their wishes.
 
231 Records of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of April 8, 2003 (File of appendices to the petition, volume I,
 
page 350).
 
232 Decision on the provisional custody petition by the Juvenile Court of Villarrica, May 2, 2003, considering
 
paragraph No 7. (File of appendices to the petition, volume V, page 2565).
 
233 Cf. Judgment of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of October 29, 2003, considering clause No. 36 (File of
 
appendices to the petition, volume V, page 2605). 234 Cf. Judgment of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of October 29, 2003, considering clause No. 36 (File of
 
appendices to the petition, volume V, page 2605).
 
235 Cf. Judgment of the Juvenile Court of Villarrica of October 29, 2003, considering clause No. 36 (File of
 
appendices to the petition, volume V, page 2589).
 
236 Cf. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 12, supra note 218, para. 24.
 
64
 
206. However, the fact that a judicial authority is not required to gather the testimony of
 
a child once again in the context of a judicial proceeding, does not release it from the
 
obligation to duly consider and assess, in one way or another, the views expressed by the
 
child in the lower courts, according to the child’s age and maturity. If appropriate, the
 
respective judicial authority must argue specifically why it will not take into account the
 
child’s views. In this regard, the expert García Méndez stated that:
 
In any type of conflict between children’s views and those of the parental authority or institutional
 
authorities, […] the child’s opinion cannot be thrown out discretionally. In other words, this means that
 
[…] very sophisticated arguments must be developed to eventually oppose the children’s views. [T]he
 
child’s opinion does not automatically create case law […]. But similarly, the child’s views cannot be
 
automatically disregarded without offering weighty and profound arguments237.
 
207. Likewise, the expert Cillero Bruñol stated that:
 
[There is] an obligation [on the part of the state authorities] to consider their opinion in deliberations that
 
lead to a decision that affects children. […] [T]he adults responsible for the decision must not decide
 
arbitrarily when the child says something relevant to the decision […]. […] If the children are sufficiently
 
developed in their opinions and points of view, these must prevail in matters affecting them, unless there
 
are very serious reasons against them. This means that if the children’s opinions are well-based, precise,
 
with sufficient knowledge of the facts and the consequences they imply, they must prima facie prevail
 
over other arguments to determine the decision that will affect the child in what refers to the facts and
 
states that involve him. This priority is demanded by the principle of the best interest of the child of Article
 
3 of the [Convention on the Rights of the Child]. The foregoing does not mean that the determination of
 
the child’s best interest is always going to coincide in the specific case with the child’s opinions, even when
 
the child has the required age and maturity to have his own opinion […] The judge or person responsible
 
for the proceedings must reasonable assess the weight of the child’s opinions, in relation to their
 
consequences for the totality of their fundamental rights, as well as with regard to the level of maturity of
 
the child, but this assessment […] demands a superior argumentative burden for the decision that is
 
different to the child’s opinion238.
 
208. The Court finds that the Supreme Court of Justice did not explain in its judgment
 
how it assessed or took into consideration the statements and preferences expressed by the
 
girls and included in the case file. Indeed, this Court notes that the Supreme Court did not
 
adopt a decision that considered the relevance attributed by said Court to the living
 
arrangements preferred by the minors and the reasons why it did not rule in accordance
 
with the wishes expressed by the three girls. On the contrary, the Supreme Court simply
 
based its decision on the alleged best interest of the three minors without giving reasons for
 
why it considered it legitimate to contradict the wishes expressed by the girls during the
 
custody proceeding, particularly given the connection between a child’s right to participate
 
and the goal of complying with the principle of the child’s best interest (supra para. 197).
 
Accordingly, the Court concludes that the aforementioned decision by the Supreme Court of
 
Justice violated the girls’ right to be heard and be duly taken into account, embodied in
 
Article 8.1, in connection with Articles 19 and 1(1)of the American Convention, to the
 
detriment of the girls M., V. and R.
 
VI
 
RIGHT TO EQUALITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF NON-DISCRIMINATION,
 
RIGHT TO A PRIVATE LIFE AND RIGHT TO JUDICAL GUARANTEES
 
237 Statement by expert García Méndez at the hearing in the present case held on August 23, 2011.
 
238 Expert report offered by Miguel Cillero Bruñol on the treatment of the principle of the best interest of the
 
child in International Law, July 2011 (Merits file, volume II, pages 935, 939, 940)
 
65
 
IN RELATION TO THE OBLIGATION TO RESPECT AND GUARANTEE RIGHTS IN
 
RELATION TO THE DISCIPLINARY INVESTIGATION
 
209. One of the aspects of the dispute is the disciplinary proceeding carried out against
 
Ms. Atala. Regarding this matter, this chapter will establish the proven facts in that case and
 
will then analyze the controversies surrounding: i) the right to equality; ii) private life, and
 
iii) judicial guarantees.
 
C. Facts proven regarding the disciplinary investigation against Ms. Atala
 
210. On March 17, 2003 the President of the Committee of Judges of the Court of Oral
 
Trials in criminal matters of Villarrica informed the Visiting Minister of the Court of Appeals
 
of Temuco, Mr. Lenin Lillo, “of a specific situation that occurred on the 12th” of March, 2003.
 
In said brief, the President of the Committee of Judges stated that Ms. Atala had requested
 
that one of her subordinates “transcribe, draw up and print official letters on behalf of the
 
Juvenile Court of Villarrica, requesting proceedings in the custody case […] in which said
 
superior judge [was] a litigating party”. Moreover, he stated that “he held a private meeting
 
[with] the Judge Atala Riffo […] warning of the inappropriateness of her actions and her
 
interference in the sphere of another Court, where she [was] not a judge but a defendant” 239.
 
211. On that same day and on March 19, 2003, the full Court of Appeals of Temuco
 
appointed Judge Lenin Lillo240 to conduct an extraordinary visit to the criminal court of
 
Villarrica where Ms. Atala was serving as a judge. It was stated that the visit “respond[ed]
 
to two basic facts: one, the publications that appeared in the newspapers Las Últimas
 
Noticias […] and La Cuarta […] which mentioned the fact that [Ms.] Atala was a lesbian”241
 
and the other concerned the facts described in the complaint filed on March 17, 2003.
 
212. After the visit to the Court where Ms. Atala served as a judge, Mr. Lillo filed a report
 
before the Court of Appeals of Temuco,242 making reference to three alleged irregularities,
 
namely: i) “use of resources and employees to comply with proceedings ordered by the
 
Judge […] of the Juvenile Court;” ii) “improper use of the court’s seal,” and iii) “publications
 
made in the press.” Regarding the first point, he described the facts reported by the
 
President of the Committee of Judges and concluded that said facts “were, in the opinion of
 
[that] visitor especially serious given that Ms. […] Atala […], making use of resources and
 
employees of the Court of which she forms part, has become directly involved in complying
 
with actions ordered in the trial that is taking place in the Juvenile Court.” Regarding the
 
second point, Mr. Lillo stated that “it was especially serious because Judge Karen Atala had
 
overstepped her powers by using elements of the Court that are under the responsibility of
 
third parties in order to favor people related to her circle of friends.”
 
239 Brief of the President of the Committee of Judges of the Court of Oral Criminal Trials of Villarrica, March
 
17, 2003 (Merits file, volume XIII, page 7040).
 
240 Report prepared by the Minister Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco of April 2, 2003 (Merits file,
 
volume XII, page 5927).
 
241 Report prepared by the Minister Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco of April 2, 2003 (Merits file,
 
volume XII, page 5927).
 
242 Report prepared by the Minister Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco of April 2, 2003 (Merits file,
 
volume XII, pages 5927 to 5934).
 
66
 
213. Finally, Mr. Lillo referred to the publications made in the newspapers “Las Últimas
 
Noticias” and “La Cuarta”, informing the public of the custody suit and referring to Ms.
 
Atala’s “lesbian relationship.”
 
214. Referring to these matters in his report, Mr. Lillo concluded that:
 
This visitor is not inclined to issue value judgments regarding the sexual inclination of Judge Atala.
 
However, it is impossible to sidestep the fact that her peculiar emotional relationship has transcended the
 
private sphere with the appearance of the above-mentioned publications, which clearly damages the
 
image of both Ms. Atala and the Judiciary. All the foregoing takes on a seriousness that merits the notice
 
of the Ilmo Court243.
 
215. On April 2, 2003, the Court of Appeals of Temuco approved the visit carried out by
 
Mr. Lillo and filed charges against Ms. Atala244. Subsequently, on May 9, 2003 the Court of
 
Appeals issued “a severe warning for the use of resources and staff to comply with
 
proceedings ordered by the Judge of the Juvenile Court […] in a case in which she is one of
 
the parties to the dispute” 245.
 
D. The right to equality and the prohibition of non-discrimination
 
Arguments of the parties
 
216. The representatives argued that Ms. Atala “had a stable relationship with her
 
partner that was no different from other couples, except for the fact that her partner was of
 
the same sex,” thus “the order to investigate and carry out a visit to the court where Judge
 
Atala worked was based exclusively on a discriminatory rejection of her sexual orientation.”
 
217. The State argued that “the report submitted by Judge Lillo to the full Court of
 
Appeals of Temuco includes a number of serious precedents that called for a ‘severe
 
warning´” and that his warning to Ms. Atala “is not at all related to her homosexuality, but
 
instead concerns complaints and facts verified by Judge Lillo.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
218. The Court notes that the Court of Appeals of Temuco received a complaint on March
 
17, 2003 against Ms. Atala for the use of implements and employees of the Court for
 
personal matters (supra para. 210). However, the Court notes that, according to the visiting
 
judge’s report, other considerations were expressed as the reason for carrying out the visit
 
to Ms. Atala’s work place. These expressly referred to Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation since
 
they were related to “the reports published in the newspapers “La Cuarta” on February 28,
 
[2003] and “Las Últimas Noticias” dated March 1, [2003], in which the public was informed
 
of the content of a custody claim filed by [Mr. López] against his wife […] because the latter
 
maintained a lesbian relationship with another woman” 246. Thus, one of the reasons for the
 
visit to Ms. Atala’s work place was to confirm the press reports about her sexual orientation.
 
243 Report prepared by Minister Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco, April 2, 2003 (Merits file,
 
volume XII, page 5934).
 
244 The Court of Appeals of Temuco stated that it “approved the visit carried out by Judge Lenin Lillo […] and
 
charges are filed against Ms. Karen Atala Riffo on the three counts mentioned in the report by the visitor.” Decision
 
of the Court of Appeals of Temuco, April 2, 2003 (Merits file, volume XII, page 5935).
 
245 Ruling of the Court of Appeals of Temuco, May 9, 2003 (Merits file, volume XII, page 5937).
 
246 Report prepared by Judge Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco, April 2, 2003 (Merits file, volume
 
XII, page 5934).
 
67
 
219. The Court notes that the disciplinary investigation and the extraordinary visit
 
mentioned have their legal basis in Articles 544 No. 4,247 559,248 and 560249 of the Organic
 
Code of Courts. Since one of the purposes of the visit was to investigate Ms. Atala’s sexual
 
orientation based on the press reports, the Court finds that Ms Atala received a
 
differentiated and unlawful treatment by having her sexual orientation and her relationship
 
with a person of the same sex included as an aspect to be investigated in the disciplinary
 
proceedings.
 
220. Finally, the State argued that the “warning” issued by the Court of Temuco was
 
based “solely” on “the use of resources and employees to carry out proceedings diligences
 
ordered” by the court in charge of the custody trial, and therefore Ms. Atala was not being
 
sanctioned, according to that argument, for her sexual orientation. However, the Court
 
notes that the report prepared by the visiting judge, which was later approved by the Court
 
of Appeals of Temuco, and based on which charges were filed against Ms. Atala, stated that
 
“it is impossible to ignore the fact that her peculiar emotional relationship has transcended
 
the private sphere with the appearance of the aforementioned publications, which clearly
 
damages the image of both [Ms.] Atala and the Judicial Branch. All the foregoing takes on a
 
seriousness that merits the Court’s notice”250. Therefore, although the Court of Temuco did
 
not expressly sanction Ms. Atala for her sexual orientation, that aspect was included in the
 
considerations of the report prepared by the visiting judge, whose legitimacy was not
 
disavowed or questioned by the Court of Temuco.
 
221. Now, regarding the legitimate purpose pursued by said investigation, the Court notes
 
that the report submitted did not clearly state the purpose of the visit with respect to the
 
inquiry regarding sexual orientation, since it only referred to the press reports published. In
 
that regard, although the legitimate purpose was not made explicit in the report, from the
 
comments made therein it is possible to infer that the inquiry regarding Ms. Atala’s sexual
 
orientation sought to protect the “image of the judicial branch.” However, the alleged
 
protection of the judiciary’s image cannot justify a difference in treatment based on sexual
 
orientation. Furthermore, the purpose served by making a difference in treatment of this
 
nature must be concrete and not abstract. In this specific case, the Court does not find any
 
connection whatsoever between the desire to protect the “image of the judicial branch” and
 
247 Article 544 No. 4, upon which the Report prepared by Judge Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco
 
of April 2, 2003 is based (Merits file, volume XII, page 5927), states that: “the disciplinary powers that correspond
 
to the Supreme Court or the Courts of Appeals must be exercised especially regarding officials of the judiciary that
 
are in any of the following situations: [...] 4. When, due to irregularity in their moral behavior or due to vices that
 
are not well regarded by the public, they compromise the decorum of their ministry. Available at:
 
<nowiki>http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=25563</nowiki> (last access February 20, 2012), electronic address provided by
 
the State (Merits file, volume XII, page 5914).
 
248 Article 559 states that: The Superior Courts of Justice will order extraordinary visits by any of its ministers
 
at the courts within their respective jurisdictional territory, provided this is required for a better judicial service.
 
Available at: <nowiki>http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=25563</nowiki> (last access February 20, 2012) (Merits file, volume
 
XII, page 5914).
 
249 Article 560 states: The Court will extraordinarily order these visits in the following cases: 1. When it
 
concerns civil cases that may affect international relations and over which the courts of justice have competence;
 
2. When it concerns an investigation of facts or crimes that must be heard by the military justice system and that
 
may affect international relationships or that cause public alarm and they demand a prompt repression due to their
 
seriousness and damaging consequences, and 3. Whenever it is necessary to investigate facts that affect the
 
behavior of judges in the exercise of their duties and when there is a notable delay in the processing of the matters
 
submitted to said judges. Available at: <nowiki>http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=25563</nowiki> (last access February 20,
 
2012) (Merits file, volume XII, page 5914). 250 Report prepared by Judge Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco of April 2, 2003 (Merits file,
 
volume XII, page 5934).
 
68
 
Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation. A person’s sexual orientation or the exercise thereof cannot
 
provide grounds, under any circumstances, to undertake a disciplinary proceeding, since
 
there is no connection between the correct performance of a person’s professional duties
 
and their sexual orientation.
 
222. Therefore, since differentiation in a disciplinary inquiry based on sexual orientation is
 
discriminatory, the Court concludes that the State violated Article 24 in conjunction with
 
Article 1(1)of the American Convention to the detriment of Karen Atala Riffo.
 
C. Right to private life
 
Arguments of the parties
 
223. The representatives stated that the investigation amounted to interference with the
 
private life of Ms. Atala, since her “office was searched […], including her computer and
 
printer, staff members of the court [were] interviewed […] on possible visits [Ms.] Atala had
 
received from women [and Ms.] Atala was questioned about her private life and her
 
relationship with her partner.” They added that “[Ms.] Atala was unlawfully exposed before
 
her social and professional community, violating her private life.”
 
224. The State indicated that the visit “did not result in any administrative sanctions
 
against [Ms.] Atala, since the Court of Appeals of Temuco considered that her private
 
activities and her family life did not hinder her judicial work.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
225. As mentioned previously (supra para. 161), Article 11 of the Convention prohibits
 
any arbitrary or abusive interference with the private life of persons, and therefore the
 
realm of privacy is exempt and immune to abusive or arbitrary intrusion or aggression by
 
the public authorities251. According to the Court’s jurisprudence, to determine whether there
 
was arbitrary interference with private life it is necessary to analyze, among other
 
requirements, the legality and purpose of the measure.
 
226. In this case, Ms. Atala stated the following regarding the visit paid to her work place:
 
“the minister [Lillo] sat down at my desk, in my office, checked my personal computer, checked all the
 
websites I had visited. Afterwards he questioned all the staff members at the Court, one by one, and also
 
questioned the cleaning staff and then my fellow judges because I was member of a three-judge collegiate
 
and he went to the Court of Guarantees, because I was a member of the Oral Criminal Court. He
 
questioned the two judges there as well as the secretary of the Court of Villarrica. That is, he questioned 6
 
colleagues asking them whether or not I was a lesbian” 252.
 
227. Faced with this treatment, Ms. Atala stated that:
 
“I felt deeply humiliated, exposed, as if I had been stripped naked and thrown into a public square”253.
 
251 Cf. Case of the Ituango Massacres, supra note 177, para. 194 and Case Fontevecchia and D`Amico, supra
 
note 28, para. 48.
 
252 Statement by Ms. Karen Atala Riffo rendered before the Inter-American Court at a public hearing in the
 
present case.
 
253 Statement by Ms. Karen Atala Riffo rendered before the Inter-American Court at a public hearing in the
 
present case.
 
69
 
228. Ms. Atala also explained that, prior to the extraordinary visit, the Court of
 
Appeals of Temuco had sent the officials of the Court of Villarrica a questionnaire with
 
questions to investigate Ms. Atala’s sexual condition254. These statements were not
 
contested by the State.
 
229. Specifically, the Court notes that in the report on Judge Lillo’s visit the following
 
facts were stated as conclusions: i) that Ms. Atala “began to be visited in her office by a
 
large number of women starting in mid 2002,”255 including her current partner “with whom
 
she would spend hours in her office;” ii) that she asked a court employee to “sketch a ring
 
based on some models she gave him[,]downloaded from the internet from a page called
 
“breaking the silence”, which was managed by sexual minorities;” iii) that Ms. Atala “was
 
visited at the Court by” her partner’s “parents” and that she introduced them “as her in-
 
laws;” iv) that Ms. Atala used the Court’s fax “to send information about sexual minorities to
 
institutions,” and v) that Ms. Atala “openly expressed her homosexuality” to Mr. Lillo and
 
“defended her determination to openly communicate it to the Court’s officials and Senior
 
Judges”256.
 
230. The Court finds that, although the disciplinary investigation began with legal
 
grounds257 and did not end with any disciplinary sanctions against Ms. Atala for her sexual
 
orientation, it did investigate this in an arbitrary manner, which constitutes interference with
 
Ms. Atala’s right to privacy, and which extends to her professional sphere. Therefore, the
 
State is responsible for violating the right to privacy, recognized in Article 11(2) in
 
conjunction with Article 1(1) of the American Convention, to the detriment of Karen Atala
 
Riffo.
 
D. Judicial guarantees
 
231. The Commission described the “content of the extraordinary visit ordered by the
 
Court of Appeals of Temuco as an example of the lack of fairness and the discriminatory
 
prejudice existing in the Chilean judicial power at the time of the custody trial.” It also
 
argued that “the impact of this visit on the custody case with regard to prejudgment, since
 
Judge Lenin Lillo ended up participating in the granting of the injunction on November 24,
 
2003”.
 
232. The representatives argued that “[w]hen a Court of Appeals of the State of Chile
 
decides to begin a disciplinary proceeding against a judge and appoints a minister to
 
conduct an extraordinary visit because her sexual orientation has been leaked [in the
 
media], there is also a violation of impartiality, since the visit is a procedure that originates
 
 
254 Statement by Ms. Karen Atala Riffo rendered before the Inter-American Court at a public hearing in the
 
present case.
 
255 Report prepared by Judge Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco of April 2, 2003, supra note Error!
 
Bookmark not defined., page 5933.
 
256 Report prepared by Judge Lenin Lillo of the Court of Appeals of Temuco of April 2, 2003, supra note Error!
 
Bookmark not defined., page 5934.
 
257 See disciplinary standards (supra para. 219).
 
70
 
due to prejudice.” They also argued that the “violation of the right to be judged by an
 
impartial court occurred from the moment that, on November 24, 2003, two judges who
 
had issued a negative opinion regarding Judge Atala’s sexual orientation participated in
 
granting the injunction.” In particular, the representatives stated that “Judges Lenin Lillo
 
and Archibaldo Loyola were legally disqualified” from participating in granting the injunction
 
issued against the lower-court ruling, since “the first [had] act[ed] as visiting judge in the
 
context of the disciplinary investigation and the second had “directly urged [Ms.] Atala to
 
renounce [custody of] her daughters.”
 
233. The State did not comment on the allegations regarding the extraordinary visit. At
 
the same time it argued that “it is not accurate that the respective chamber of the Court of
 
Appeals of Temuco […] included two Judges legally disqualified to act, given that since the
 
grounds for disqualification were not invoked, it is understood that the party with the right
 
to invoke it waived the exercise of their right.”
 
Considerations of the Court
 
234. The Court reiterates that the personal impartiality of a judge is to be presumed,
 
unless there is evidence to the contrary (supra para. 189)258. In an analysis of subjective
 
impartiality, the Court should attempt to determine the personal interests or reasons of a
 
judge in a particular case259. As to the type of evidence required to prove subjective
 
impartiality, the European Court has indicated the need to ascertain whether the judge has
 
displayed hostility or ill will if he has arranged to have a case assigned to himself for
 
personal reasons260.
 
235. The Court has already established (supra paras. 222 and 230) that the extraordinary
 
visit affected Ms. Atala’s right to equality, non-discrimination and private life. Likewise, it
 
has concluded that it was discriminatory to include Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation or her
 
relationship with her partner in the disciplinary investigation, since this had no bearing
 
whatsoever on her professional performance (supra para. 221 and therefore there were no
 
grounds to conclude that Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation could result in a disciplinary offense.
 
However, the report on the visit to her work place determined that the findings regarding
 
Ms. Atala’s sexual orientation “take on a great seriousness that merits the Court’s [of
 
Appeals of Temuco] notice. (supra para. 214).
 
236. Furthermore, the Court notes the circumstances in which the extraordinary visit took
 
place, since prior to and during the visit, officials and employees of the Court of Villarrica
 
258 In European case law, see ECHR, Case Kyprianou v. Cyprus, (No. 73797/01), Judgment of January 27,
 
2004, para. 119 (“In applying the subjective test, the Court has consistently held that the personal impartiality of a
 
judge must be presumed until there is proof to the contrary”), citing ECHR, Case of Hauschildt v. Denmark, (No.
 
10486/83), Judgment of May 24, 1989, para. 47.
 
259 Cf. ECHR, Case Kyprianou, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 118 (“a subjective
 
approach, that is endeavoring to ascertain the personal conviction or interest of a given judge in a particular
 
case”).
 
260 Cf. ECHR, Case Kyprianou, supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., para. 119 (“As regards the type of
 
proof required, the Court has, for example, sought to ascertain whether a judge has displayed hostility or ill will or
 
has arranged to have a case assigned to himself for personal”). Also see ECHR, Case Bellizzi v. Malta, (No.
 
46575/09), Judgment of June 21, 2011. Final, November 28, 2011, para. 52 and the Case of Cubber v. Belgium,
 
(No. 9186/80), Judgment of October 26, 1996, para. 25. The European Court also noted that the subjective
 
impartiality of a judge may be determined, according to the specific circumstances of the Case, based on the
 
judge’s conduct of the proceeding, the content, arguments and language used in the decision, or the reasons for
 
carrying out the investigation, which would indicate a lack of professional distance regarding the decision. Cf.
 
ECHR, Case Kyprianou v. Cyprus, (No. 73797/01), G.C., Judgment of December 15, 2005, paras. 130 to 133.
 
 
 
 
 
 
Karen Atala Riffo adalah jaksa berkewarganegaraan [[Chili]], yang juga adalah seorang ibu [[lesbian]] dari tiga orang puteri. Atala bercerai dari suaminya pada 2001, dan kemudian mendapatkan hak asuh atas tiga puterinya, melalui kesepakatan dengan mantan suaminya.
 
Ketika Atala Riffo menyatakan diri sebagai [[lesbian]] pada 2005, mantan suaminya mengajukan gugatan hak asuh anak atas tiga puteri mereka, yang akhirnya dikabulkan oleh [[Mahkamah Agung Chili]]. Mahkamah memberikan hak asuh anak kepada mantan suami Atala, atas pertimbangan bahwa [[orientasi seksual]] Atala Riffo akan membahayakan pertumbuhkembangan ketiga puterinya.
 
[[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] menyatakan bahwa [[Mahkamah Agung Chili]] telah melanggar [[Konvensi Amerika tentang Hak Asasi Manusia]].
 
== Referensi ==
{{reflist}}
 
[[Kategori:Perkara hak asasi manusia]]
==Referensi==
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Atala_Riffo_and_Daughters_v._Chile"