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Bahasa Spanyol, juga disebut Kastilia, adalah Bahasa Roman yang berasal dari daerah Kastilia di Spanyol. Lebih dari 400 juta orang menggunakan bahasa Spanyol sebagai bahasa ibu, menjadikannya sebagai bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak dari Mandarin.[1] Diperkirakan ada 470 juta orang yang merupakan penutur asli bahasa Spanyol dan 548 juta orang yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.[2] Bahasa Spanyol merupakan bahasa ketiga dengan penutur terbanyak setelah Inggris dan Mandarin. [3][4][5][6] Bahasa Spanyol adalah satu dari bahasa resmi PBB dan juga Uni Eropa, Organisasi Negara-Negara Amerika, Persatuan Negara-Negara Amerika Selatan, dan banyak lagi.

Bahasa Spanyol adalah bagian dari bahasa Ibero-Roman, yang berevolusi dari beberapa dialek Latin Umum di Semenanjung Iberia setelah keruntuhan dari Kekaisaran Romawi Barat pada abad ke-5. Bahasa ini pertama kali diucapkan di Iberia utara pada abad ke-9 dan perlahan meluas dengan perluasan Kerajaan Kastilia ke Iberia pusat dan selatan.[7] Pada awal abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke koloni Kekaisaran Spanyol, yang di antaranya adalah Amerika Selatan dan Afrika, Oseania, dan Filipina.[8]

Semenjak awalnya, kosakata bahasa Spanyol dipengaruhi oleh hubungannya dengan bahasa Basque, begitu pun dengan bahasa Ibero-Roman yang lain, dan selanjutnya menyerap banyak kata bahasa Arab saat kepemilikan Islam atas Iberia.[9]. Ia juga menyerap kata dari bahasa bukan Iberia, utamanya dari Oksitan, Prancis, Italia, dan Sardinia, begitu pun dari bahasa Nahuatl dan bahasa-bahasa natif Amerika. Pada masa modern, ia melanjutkan menambahkan kata-kata baru, dan semakin banyak menyerap dari bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari 19 negara di Amerika. Di Uni Eropa, bahasa ini digunakan sebagai bahasa ibu dari 8% warganya, dengan tambahan 7% yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.[10] Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa kedua terpopuler yang dipelajari di Amerika Serikat.[11]

Nama bahasa

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Penyebaran dari pemilihan kata castellano (Kastilia) (merah) dan español (Spanyol) (biru)

Di Spanyol dan negara-negara berbahasa Spanyol, bahasa ini disebut castellano (Kastilia) maupun español (Spanyol). Kata castellano merujuk pada region Kastilia (Castilla) di Spanyol, tempat bahasa ini berasal, dan kontras dengan bahasa-bahasa lain yang digunakan di Spanyol, seperti Galisia, Basque, dan Katala.

Konstitusi Spanyol 1978 menggunakan kata castellano untuk menyebut bahasa resmi dari seluruh negara Spanyol, kontras dengan las demás lenguas españolas (bhs. bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain). Pasal III berbunyi:

El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas...
(Bahasa) Kastilia adalah bahasa Spanyol resmi dari Negara. ... Bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain juga akan menjadi resmi di Komunitas Otonom mereka sendiri...

Akademi Resmi Spanyol, di samping itu, kini menggunakan kata español dalam terbitannya, tapi semenjak 1713 sampai 1923 menggunakan kata castellano.

Diccionatio panhispánico de dudas (sebuah pengantar bahasa yang diterbitankan oleh Akademi Resmi Spanyol) menyatakan bahwa meskipun Akademi Resmi Spanyol memilih menggunakan kata español dalam terbitannya saat merujuk ke bahasa Spanyol, kedua kata, español dan castellano, dipandang sama dan valid.[12]

Dua etimologi untuk español telah disarankan. Kamus Akademi Resmi Spanyol mengasalkan kata tersebut dari kata Provençal espaignol, dan lebih jauh dari kata bahasa Latin Hispaniolus, 'sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan Hispania'.[13] Otoritas lain[14][15] mengarahkannya pada kata bahasa Latin *hispaniōne, dengan arti yang sama.

Sejarah

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Artikel utama: Sejarah bahasa Spanyol
 
Satu halaman dari Cantar de Mio Cid, puisi tertua yang ditemukan dengan bahasa Spanyol lama.

Bahasa Spanyol berevolusi dari bahasa Latin Umum, yang dibawa ke Semenanjung Iberia oleh para Romawi saat Perang Punisia Kedua, mulai pada 210 SM. Sebelumnya, beberapa bahasa sebelum Romawi (juga disebut bahasa-bahasa Paleohispani)—tidak terkait ke bahasa Latin, dan beberapa di antara mereka bahkan tidak terkait ke Indo-Eropa—digunakan di Semenanjung Iberia. Bahasa-bahasa ini termasuk Basque (kini masih dipakai), Iberia, Keltiberia, dan Kelt. Sisa-sisa bahasa Basque bisa ditemukan di kosakata bahasa Spanyol kini, utamanya di nama tempat.

Dokumen-dokumen pertama yang diketahui berisi bentuk yang kini dikenal sebagai bentuk mentah bahasa Spanyol berasal dari abad ke-9. Selama Abad Pertengahan sampai masa modern, pengaruh paling penting dalam tata bahasa Spanyol berasal dari bahasa Roman di sekelilingnya saat itu—Navarro-Aragon, Llion, Aragon, Basque, Katala, Portugis, Galisia, Miranda, Oksitan, Gaskon, dan selanjutnya, bahasa Prancis dan bahasa Italia—tapi juga dipengaruhi oleh bahasa Arab dan bahasa Jermanik. Banyak kata yang diserap dari bahasa Latin Klasik melalui bahasa tertulis dan bahasa liturgi Gereja.

Dialek lokal dari bahasa Latin Umum berevolusi menjadi bahasa Spanyol di Iberia bagian utara, di daerah Álava, Cantabria, Burgos, Soria, dan La Rioja. Dialek ini selanjutnya dibawa ke kota Toledo, di mana bahasa standar tertulisnya pertama kali diciptakan pada abad ke-13.[16] Dalam tahapan ini, bahasa Spanyol (saat itu masih dianggap bahasa Kastilia) mulai membedakan diri dari saudara dekatnya, bahasa Llion, dan, menurut beberapa pendapat, dibedakan dari pengaruh bahasa Basque yang besar. Dialek yang berbeda ini meluas perlahan ke selatan dengan adanya Reconquista, dan mendapatkan cukup banyak pengaruh tata bahasa dari bahasa Arab dari Al-Andalus, meski tidak secara langsung, melainkan dari dialek Mozarabik (sekitar 4.000 kata dari bahasa Arab (8%) ada dalam bahasa ini kini).[17] Standar tertulis bahasa baru ini mulai diciptakan di kota Toledo, di abad ke-13 sampai 16, dan Madrid sejak 1570. [16]

Perkembangan fonologi bahasa Spanyol dari bahasa Latin Umum berisi banyak perubahan yang sama dari bahasa Roman Barat, termasuk pelemahan (lenisi) dari huruf mati intervokalis (menghasilkan Spanyol vida dari Latin vīta). Diftongisasi dari huruf pendek ditekan e dan o—yang terjadi pada suku kata terbuka di bahasa Prancis dan Italia, tapi tidak sama sekali di bahasa Katala maupun Portugis—ditemukan di baik suku kata terbuka dan tertutup di bahasa Spanyol, seperti di tabel berikut:

Bahasa Latin Bahasa Spanyol Bahasa Ladino Bahasa Aragon Bahasa Asturia Bahasa Galisia Bahasa Portugis Bahasa Katala Bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan Bahasa Prancis Bahasa Sardinia Bahasa Italia Bahasa Romania Bahasa Indonesia
petra piedra piedra (or pyedra) piedra piedra pedra pedra pedra pedra/pèira pierre perda pietra piatrǎ 'batu'
terra tierra tierra (or tyerra) tierra tierra terra terra terra tèrra terre terra terra țară 'tanah'
moritur muere muere muere muerre morre morre mor morís meurt mòrit muore moare 'mati' (kata kerja.)
mortem muerte muerte muerte muerte morte morte mort mòrt mort mòrti morte moarte 'kematian'
 
Peta garis waktu menunjukkan evolusi kebahasaan di Eropa Timur Laut

Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai palatalisasi dari huruf mati ganda bahasa Latin nn dan ll (menghasilkan año dari annum dan anillo dari anellum).

Huruf mati yang ditulis dengan u atau v di bahasa Latin yang diucapkan [w] mungkin telah mengalami "fortifikasi" ke frikatif bilabial /β/ di bahasa Latin Umum. Di bahasa Spanyol awal (tapi tidak di bahasa Katala dan Portugis), ia tercampur dengan huruf mati b (bilabial dengan alofon plosif dan frikatif). Di bahasa Spanyol modern, tidak ada perbedaan dengan pengucapan huruf b dan v, dengan pengecualian beberapa dialek bahasa Spanyol.

Dan juga pada bahasa Spanyol (begitu pun dengan dialek Gaskon dari bahasa Oksitan) ada perubahan dari huruf f- di depan kata bahasa Latin menjadi h-, ketika diikuti oleh huruf hidup yang tidak mengalami diftongisasi. Pengucapan h- tersebut, yang masih ada dalam ejaan, kini tak diucapkan di banyak versi bahasa ini, meski di beberapa dialek Andalusia dan Karibia masih diucapkan di beberapa kata. Itulah alasan kenapa ada dua variasi ejaan modern. Fernando dan Hernando (keduanya berarti Ferdinan), ferrero dan herrero (pandai besi), fierro dan hierro (besi), dan fondo dan hondo (dalam, tapi fondo berarti bawah dan hondo berarti dalam); hacer (melakukan) adalah akar dari satisfacer (memuaskan), dan hecho (dilakukan) adalah akar dari satisfecho (dipuaskan).

Bandingkan contoh berikut:

Bahasa Latin Bahasa Spanyol Bahasa Ladino Bahasa Aragon Bahasa Asturia Bahasa Galisia Bahasa Portugis Bahasa Katala Bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan Bahasa Prancis Bahasa Sardinia Bahasa Italia Bahasa Romania Bahasa Indonesia
filium hijo fijo (or ijo) fillo fíu fillo filho fill filh/hilh fils fillu figlio fiu 'anak laki-laki'
facere hacer fazer fer facer facer fazer fer far/faire/har (or hèr) faire fairi fare a face 'melakukan'
febrem fiebre fiebre fiebre fiebre febre febre febre fèbre/frèbe/hrèbe (or
herèbe)		 fièvre (calentura) febbre febră 'demam'
focum fuego fuego fuego fueu fogo fogo foc fuòc/fòc/huèc feu fogu fuoco foc 'api'

Beberapa gugus huruf mati bahasa Latin juga menghasilkan hasil berbeda di bahasa-bahasa tersebut, seperti ditampilkan dalam tabel berikut:

Bahasa Latin Bahasa Spanyol Bahasa Ladino Bahasa Aragon Bahasa Asturia Bahasa Galisia Bahasa Portugis Bahasa Katala Bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan Bahasa Prancis Bahasa Sardinia Bahasa Italia Bahasa Romania Bahasa Indonesia
clāvem llave clave clau llave chave chave/clave clau clau clé crai chiave cheie 'kunci'
flamma llama flama flama flama chama chama/flama flama flama flamme framma fiamma flamă 'kobaran api'
plēnum lleno pleno plen llenu cheo cheio/pleno ple plen plein prenu pieno plin 'banyak, penuh'
octō ocho ocho güeito ocho/oito oito oito vuit/huit uèch/uòch/uèit huit otu otto opt 'delapan'
multum mucho
muy		 muncho
muy		 muito
mui		 munchu
mui		 moito
moi		 muito
mui (arch.)		 molt molt (arch.) moult (arch.) (meda) molto mult 'sangat,
banyak'
 
Antonio de Nebrija, penulis Gramática de la lengua castellana, tata bahasa pertama dari bahasa Eropa modern.[18]

Pada abad ke-15 dan 16, bahasa Spanyol melalui perubahan besar dalam pengucapan huruf mati sibilannya, dikenal dengan reajuste de las sibilantes, yang menghasilkan velar [x] (seperti khusus) untuk huruf ⟨j⟩ dan—di banyak daerah di Spanyol—interdental [θ] (seperti tsanawiyah) untuk huruf ⟨z⟩, dan ⟨c⟩ sebelum ⟨e⟩ atau ⟨i⟩.

Gramática de la lengua castellana yang ditulis oleh Salamanca pada 1492 oleh Antonio de Nebrija adalah tata bahasa pertama yang ditulis untuk sebuah bahasa Eropa Modern.[19] Menurut sebuah anekdot yang populer, saat Antonio memberikannya pada Ratu Isabela I, ia menanyakannya apa kegunaan hasil itu, dan dia menjawab bahwa bahasa adalah instrumen dari sebuah kerajaan.[20] Dalam pengenalannya ke tata bahasa tersebut, pada 18 Agustus 1492, Antonio menulis bahwa "...bahasa selalu merupakan pendamping kerajaan.".[21]

Semenjak abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke Amerika dan Hindia Spanyol melalui Kolonisasi Spanyol di Amerika. Pada abad ke-20, bahasa ini dibawa ke Sahara Barat dan Guinea Khatulistiwa dan ke daerah di Amerika Serikat yang tak pernah menjadi bagian Kerajaan Spanyol, seperti Spanish Harlem di New York.

Tata bahasa

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Artikel utama: Tata bahasa Spanyol
 
Miguel de Cervantes penulis Don Quixote, yang dianggap sebagai Noer Eropa modern pertama.

Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa yang terinfleksi, dengan sistem jenis kelamin kata ganda dan sekitar 50 bentuk terkonjugasi dari kata kerja, tapi dengan infleksi dari kata benda, kata sifat, dan penentu (kebahasaan) yang terbatas pada jumlah dan jenis kelamin. (Lihat kata kerja bahasa Spanyol) Sintaks bahasa Spanyol bersistem pembatangan kanan, berarti bahwa sub-kata atau pemodifikasi biasa diletakkan setelah kata utama (seperti burung biru; burung = kata utama, biru = pemodifikasi). Bahasa ini menggunakan kata depan (daripada kata belakang atau infleksi kata benda untuk kasus), dan biasanya—meski tidak selalu—meletakkan kata sifat setelah kata benda, begitu pun rata-rata bahasa Roman yang lain.

Struktur kalimatnya biasanya subyek—kata benda—obyek, meski variasi pun sering. Ia adalah bahasa pro-drop atau subyek kosong—yang mengizinkan penghapusan subyek saat mereka secara pragmatis tidak dibutuhkan. Bahasa ini merupakan bahasa kata kerja terbingkai, berarti arah dari kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja sementara mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja langsung (bentuk –ing dalam bahasa Inggris) (contoh subir corriendo atau salir volando; penerjemahan dalam bahasa Indonesia—'berlari naik' dan 'terbang keluar'—menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Indonesia merupakan bahasa "satelit terbingkai", dengan mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja dan arah kegiatan dalam kata kerja langsung/kata sifat).

Pembalikan subyek/kata kerja tidak dibutuhkan dalam pertanyaan. Oleh karena itu, perintah atau pertanyaan bisa tergantung pada penekanan.

Fonologi

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Artikel utama: Fonologi bahasa Spanyol

Fonologi segmental

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Diagram huruf hidup bahasa Spanyol, dari Ladefoged & Johnson (2010)

Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai 5 suara huruf hidup (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/), dan 17 sampai 19 suara huruf mati (jumlah tepat tergantung dialek). Variasi alofon utama di antara huruf hidup adalah pengurangan huruf hidup tinggi /i/ dan /u/ menjadi /j/ dan /w/ saat tidak ditekan dan diikuti huruf hidup yang lain. Beberapa instansi dari huruf hidup tengah /e/ dan /o/, secara leksikal ditentukan, tertukar dengan diftong /je/ dan /we/ saat ditekan, dalam proses yang lebih bagus dideskripsikan sebagai morfofonemik daripada fonologikal, karena ia tidak bisa diramalkan hanya dari fonologi.

Sistem huruf mati bahasa Spanyol berciri: (1) tiga fonem hidung (nasal), dan satu atau dua (tergantung dialek) fonem lateral, yang pada posisi suku kata akhir kehilangan kontras dan tunduk pada asimilasi dengan mengikuti konsonan; (2) tiga plosif nirsuara dan afrikat /tʃ/; (3) tiga atau empat (tergantung dialek) frikatif nirsuara; (4) satu set fonem hambat bersuara—/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, dan terkadang /ʝ/—yang bergantian antara alofon afroksiman dan plosif tengantung keadaan; dan (5) perbedaan antara suara "r" yang ditap dan digetarkan (ditulis ⟨r⟩ (ditap) dan ⟨rr⟩ (digetarkan) dalam ortografi)


Dalam tabel fonem konsonan berikut, /θ/ dan /ʎ/ ditandai dengan tanda bintang (*) untuk menunjukkan bahwa mereka hanya dipakai dalam beberapa dialek. Dalam kebanyakan dialek, mereka telah bergabung, masing-masing, dengan /s/ dan /ʝ/, disebut seseo dan yeísmo. Fonem /ʃ/ ada dalam tanda kurung () untuk menunjukkan bahwa ia hanya muncul dalam kata-kata pinjaman. Setiap fonem hambat bersuara /b/, /d/, /ʝ/, dan /ɡ/ muncul di sebelah kanan dari sepasang fonem nirsuara, untuk menunjukkan bahwa, saat fonem nirsuara mempertahankan kontras fonemik antara plosif (atau afrikat) dan frikatif, yang bersuara alternatif secara alofon (yaitu tanpa kontras fonemik) antara plosif dan pengucapan afroksiman.

Fonem huruf mati[22]
Bibir Gigi Langit-langit depan Langit-langit tengah Langit-langit belakang
Huruf mati sengau m n ɲ
Huruf mati henti p b t d tʃ ʝ k ɡ
Huruf mati berkelanjutan (continuant) f θ* s (ʃ) x
Huruf mati rusuk (lateral) l ʎ*
Huruf mati kepak (flap) ɾ
Huruf mati getar r
V dan B

Huruf ⟨v⟩ dan ⟨b⟩ biasanya mewakili fonem yang sama, /b/, yang diucapkan sebagai [b] setelah konsonan sengau atau jeda, dan sebagai [β] di tempat lain, seperti di ambos [ambos] ('keduanya'), envío [embi.o] ('aku mengirim'), acabar [akaβaɾ] ('menyelesaikan') dan mover [moβeɾ] ('bergerak'). Akademi Resmi Spanyol menganggap pengucapan /v/ dari huruf ⟨v⟩ adalah salah dan terpengaruh. Namun, beberapa penutur bahasa Spanyol mempertahankan pengucapan /v/ suara seperti di bahasa-bahasa Eropa barat lainnya. Suara /v/ yang digunakan digunakan untuk huruf ⟨v⟩, dalam bahasa Spanyol, dengan beberapa penutur bahasa kedua di Spanyol yang bahasa ibunya adalah bahasa Katala, di Kepulauan Balearic, di Komunitas Valencia, dan di Katalunya selatan.[23] Di Amerika Serikat juga umum karena kedekatan dan pengaruh fonologi bahasa Inggris, dan /v/ juga kadang-kadang digunakan di Meksiko. Beberapa bagian dari Amerika Tengah juga menggunakan /v/, yang dianggak Akademi adalah pengaruh bahasa lokal setempat.

Dahulu, pengucapan /v/ tidaklah umum, tapi dianggap benar sampai abad ke-20.

Persajakan

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Bahasa Spanyol diklasifikasikan oleh iramanya sebagai bahasa berwaktu suku, yang berarti bahwa setiap suku kata memiliki sekitar durasi yang sama meski ada dari tekanan.[24][25]

Intonasi bahasa Spanyol sangat bervariasi sesuai dengan dialek, tetapi umumnya sesuai dengan pola jatuh nada kalimat deklaratif dan pertanyaan (siapa, apa, mengapa, dan lain-lain), dan meningkatnya nada untuk pertanyaan ya/tidak.[26][27] Tidak ada tanda-tanda sintaksis untuk membedakan antara pertanyaan dan pernyataan, dan dengan demikian pengakuan deklaratif atau interogatif sepenuhnya tergantung pada intonasi.

Tekanan paling sering terjadi pada salah satu dari tiga suku kata terakhir dari kata, dengan beberapa pengecualian langka di suku kata keempat terakhir atau sebelumnya. Kecenderungan peletakan tekanan adalah sebagai berikut:[28]

  • Dalam kata yang berakhir dengan huruf hidup, tekanan paling sering jatuh pada suku kata kedua terakhir.
  • Dalam kata yang berakhir dengan huruf mati, tekanan paling sering jatuh pada suku kata terakhir, dengan pengecualian sebagai berikut: Akhiran tata bahasa -n (untuk orang ketiga-jamak dari kata kerja) dan -s (baik untuk jamak dari kata benda dan kata sifat atau kedua orang-tunggal dari kata kerja) tidak mengubah tempat tekanan. Maka, kata kerja teratur yang berakhir dengan -n dan sebagian besar kata yang berakhir dengan -s ditekan pada suku kata sebelum terakhir itu. Meskipun sejumlah besar kata benda dan kata sifat yang berakhir dengan -n juga menekankan pada kedua terakhir (misalnya joven, virgen, Mitin), sebagian besar kata benda dan kata sifat yang berakhir dengan n stres pada suku kata terakhir (misalnya capitán, almacén, jardín, corazón).
  • Tekanan pada suku kata keempat terakhir jarang terjadi, dan hanya pada kata kerja dengan kata ganti klitikanya terpasang (misalnya guardándoselos 'menyimpannya untuk dia / dia / mereka').

Selain banyak pengecualian terhadap kecenderungan ini, ada banyak pasangan minimal yang berbeda hanya pada tekanan seperti sábana ('lembar') dan sabana ('sabana'), serta límite ('batas'), limite ('[yang] dia batasi ') dan limité ('aku membatasi' (lampau sempurna)), atau juga líquido ('cairan'), liquido ('aku menjual'), dan liquidó ('ia menjual' (lampau sempurna)).

Sistem ejaan ini jelas mencerminkan di mana tekanan terjadi: dengan tidak adanya tanda aksen, tekanan jatuh pada suku kata terakhir kecuali huruf terakhir adalah ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, atau huruf hidup, di kasus tekanan jatuh pada suku kata kedua terakhir; jika dan hanya jika tidak adanya tanda aksen akan memberikan informasi tekanan yang salah, tanda aksen akut muncul di atas suku kata yang ditekan.

Penyebaran geografis

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Lihat pula: Hispanofon
 
  Bahasa resmi
  1.000.000+
  100.000+
  20.000+
Pembelajaran aktif bahasa Spanyol.[29]

Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa utama dari 20 negara. Diperkirakan jumlah keseluruhan dari penutur bahasa Spanyol adalah antara 470 dan 500 juta orang, menjadikannya bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak.[30][31]

Bahasa ini adalah bahasa terbesar ketiga dengan jumlah penutur keseluruhan (setelah bahasa Mandarin dan Inggris). Statistik penggunaan internet untuk tahun 2007 menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa ketiga yang paling sering digunakan di internet, setelah bahasa Inggris dan Mandarin.[32]

Eropa

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Persentasi orang yang mengaku tahu cukup bahasa Spanyol untuk melakukan percakapan di UE pada 2005
  Negara asli
  Lebih dari 8,99%
  Antara 4% dan 8,99%
  Antara 1% dan 3,99%
  Kurang dari 1%

Di Eropa, bahasa Spanyol adalah bahas resmi dari Spanyol, negara dari mana ia dinamai dan berasal. Bahasa ini dituturkan luas di Gibraltar, meskipun bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa resmi.[33] Ia juga biasa dituturkan di Andorra, meski bahasa Katala adalah bahasa resminya.[34]

Bahasa ini juga dituturkan oleh perkumpulan kecil di negara-negara Eropa lain, seperti Britania Raya, Prancis, dan Jerman.[35] bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari Uni Eropa. Di Swiss, yang mempunyai gelombang migrasi Spanyol yang besar pada abad ke-20, bahasa ini adalah bahasa ibu dari 2,2% warganya.[36]

Amerika

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Amerika Latin

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Artikel utama: Bahasa Spanyol di Amerika

Banyak penutur bahasa Spanyol ada di Amerika Latin; dari semua negara dengan mayoritas penutur bahasa Spanyol, hanya Spanyol dan Guinea Khatulistiwa yang ada di luar Amerika. Secara nasional, bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi—antara de facto atau de jure—dari Argentina, Bolivia (bersama Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, dan 34 bahasa lain), Chili, Kolombia, Kosta Rika, Kuba, Republik Dominika, Ekuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Meksico, Nikaragua, Panama, Paraguay (bersama Guarani),[37] Peru (bersama Quechua, Aymara, dan "bahasa-bahasa lokal lain"[38]), Uruguay, dan Venezuela. Bahasa Spanyol bersama bahasa Inggris menjadi bahas resmi dari Puerto Riko.[39]

Bahasa Spanyol tidak mempunyai status resmi di koloni Britania, Belize; namun, per sensus 2000, ia dituturkan oleh 43% warganya.[40][41] Utamanya, ia dituturkan oleh keturunan Latin yang telah ada di sana sejak abad ke-17; meski bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa resminya.[42]

Karena kedekatan jarak mereka pada negara berbahasa Spanyol, Trinidad dan Tobago dan Brazil telah memasukkan bahasa Spanyol ke dalam sistem pendidikan mereka. Pemerintah Trinidad meluncurkan Bahasa Spanyol sebagai Bahasa Asing Pertama (Spanish as a First Foreign Language - SAFFL) pada Maret 2005.[43] Pada 2005, Kongres Nasional Brazil menyetujui hukum oleh Presiden untuk sekolah-sekolah untuk menawarkan bahasa Spanyol sebagai les bahasa asing alternatif baik di sekolah umum dan pribadi di Brazil. ref>"Brazilian Law 11.161". Presidência da República. 2005-08-05. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-31. </ref> Di banyak desa dan kota di perbatasan (utamanya di Brazil – Uruguay dan Brazil – Paraguay), ada bahasa campuran yang dikenal dengan Portuñol.[44]

Amerika Serikat

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Artikel utama: Bahasa Spanyol di Amerika Serikat
Lihat pula: Bahasa Spanyol Meksiko Baru
 
Bahasa Spanyol di Amerika Serikat. Semakin hijau berarti semakin banyak penutur bahasa Spanyol.

Menurut data sensus 2006, 44,3 juta orang Amerika Serikat adalah keturunan orang Latin atau Amerika Latin;[45] 38,3 juta orang atau 13% dari warga di atas 5 tahun menggunakan bahasa Spanyol di rumah.[46] Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai sejarah dan kehadiran yang panjang di Amerika Serikan karena administrasi Spanyol dan selanjutnya, Meksiko di daerah yang kini adalah negara-negara bagian barat laut, pun Florida, yang merupakan teritori Spanyol sampai 1821.

Bahasa Spanyol kini adalah bahasa kedua paling umum dituturkan dan dipelajari di negara tersebut, dan dengan lebih dari 50 juta penutur keseluruhan, kini Amerika Serikat adalah negara berbahasa Spanyol terbesar kedua di dunia setelah Meksiko.[47] Meski bahasa Inggris secara de facto adalah bahasa resmi negara, bahasa Spanyol sering dipakai di layanan umum dan pemberitahuan di tingkat federal dan negara bagian. Bahasa Spanyol juga dipakai dalam administrasi di negara bagian Meksiko Baru.[48] Ia juga memiliki pengaruh besar di daerah metropolitan utama seperti Los Angles (yang namanya pun berbahasa Spanyol), Miami, San Antonio, New York, San Fransisco, Dallas, dan Phoenix; dan baru-baru ini, Chicago, Las Vegas, Boston, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Kota Salt Lake, Atalanta, Nashville, Orlando, Tampa, Raleigh, dan Washington, D.C. karena imigrasi abad 20 dan 21.

Africa

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In Africa, Spanish is official (along with Portuguese and French) in Equatorial Guinea, as well as an official language of the African Union. In Equatorial Guinea, Spanish is the predominant language when native and non-native speakers (around 500,000 people) are counted, while Fang is the most spoken language by number of native speakers.[49][50] However, Equatorial Guinea has historically had closer and longer ties with Portugal.

Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in North Africa, which include the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla, the Plazas de soberanía, and the Canary Islands, archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa. But Ceuta and Melilla are integral territories of Spain, not Africa.

Within Northern Morocco, a former Spanish protectorate that is also geographically close to Spain, approximately 20,000 people speak Spanish as a second language, while Arabic is the de jure official language. A small number of Moroccan Jews also speak the Sephardic Spanish dialect Haketia (related to the Ladino dialect spoken in Israel). Spanish is spoken by some small communities in Angola because of the Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned in time for their country's independence.[51]

In Western Sahara, formerly Spanish Sahara, Spanish was officially spoken during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Today, Spanish in this disputed territory is maintained by populations of Sahrawi nomads numbering about 500,000 people, and is de facto official alongside Arabic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, although this entity receives limited international recognition.[52][53]

Asia-Pacific

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Lihat pula: Romance-speaking Asia dan Spanish language in the Philippines
    [[Image:|124px|alt=]]
Juan Luna, José Rizal and La solidaridad newspaper (Ilustrados)

Spanish is present on Easter Island, as it was annexed as a Chilean province in 1888.

Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization (1565–1898), it was the language of government, trade and education, and spoken as a first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos. In the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial government set up a free public education system with Spanish as the medium of instruction. This increased use of Spanish throughout the islands led to the formation of a class of Spanish-speaking intellectuals called the Ilustrados. However, Spanish was never spoken by the majority of the population.[54]

Despite American administration after the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War in 1898, the usage of Spanish continued in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American rule. Gradually, however, the American government began increasingly promoting the use of English, and it characterized Spanish as a negative influence of the past. Eventually, by the 1920s, English became the primary language of administration and education.[55] But despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines when it became independent in 1946, alongside English and Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog.

 
Early flag of the Filipino revolutionaries ("Long live the Philippine Republic!"). The first two constitutions were written in Spanish.

Spanish was removed from official status in 1973 under the administration of Ferdinand Marcos, but regained its status as an official language two months later under Presidential Decree No. 155, dated 15 March 1973.[56] It remained an official language until 1987, with the ratification of the present constitution, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.[57] In 2010, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo encouraged the reintroduction of Spanish-language teaching in the Philippine education system.[58] But by 2012, the number of secondary schools at which the language was either a compulsory subject or an elective had become very limited.[59] Today, despite government promotions of Spanish, less than 0.5% of the population report being able to speak the language proficiently.[60] Estimates indicate that while around 3 million people can speak Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439 thousand people can speak the language at a native level.[61] Aside from standard Spanish, a Spanish-based creole language—Chavacano—developed in the southern Philippines. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish.[62] Speakers of the Zamboangueño variety of Chavacano were numbered about 360,000 in the 2000 census.[63] The local languages of the Philippines also retain some Spanish influence, with many words being derived from Mexican Spanish, owing to the control of the islands by Spain through Mexico City until 1821, and then directly from Madrid until 1898.[64][65]

Spanish was also used by the colonial governments and educated classes in the former Spanish East Indies, consisting of modern-day Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and Micronesia, in addition to the Philippines. Spanish loan words are present in the local languages of these territories as a legacy of colonial rule.[66][67] Today, Spanish is not spoken officially in any of these former Spanish territories.

Spanish speakers by country

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The following table shows the number of Spanish speakers in some 79 countries.

Country Population[68] Spanish as a native language speakers[69][70][71][72][73] Native speakers or very good speakers as a second language[74] Total number of Spanish speakers (including second language speakers)[74][75][76]
  Mexico 121,005,815[77] 112.172.391 (92.7%)[78] 119.190.728 (98.5%)[76]
  United States 318,881,992[79] 38,417,235[80] (13%)[81] 41,343,921[2] (82%[82] of the 54.1 mill. Hispanics[83] + 2.8 mill. non Hispanics[84]) 52,000,000[2] (including 7.8 million students[2] and some of the 9 million illegal Hispanics not accounted by the Census[85])[86][87][88][89][90][91]
  Colombia 48,014,000[92] 47.505.624[93] 47.629.888 (99.2%)[76]
  Spain 46,771,341[94] 38.352.500[95] 46.210.085 (98.8%)[76]
  Argentina 43,131,966 [96][97] 39,500,000[98] 42.873.174 (99.4%)[76]
  Venezuela 30,620,404[99] 29.522.160[100] 30.252.959 (98.8%)[76]
  Peru 31,151,643[101] 26.198.532 (84.1%)[102][103] 26.977.323 (86.6%)[76]
  Chile 18,006,407[104] 17,724,807[105] 17.880.362 (99.3%)[76]
  Ecuador 15,580,000[106] 13,200,000[107] 15.499.800 (98.1%)[76]
  Guatemala 15,806,675[68] 9.484.005[108] 13.656.967 (86.4%)[76]
  Brazil 201,032,714[109] 460,018[110] 460,018[110] 12,460,018[110][111][112]
  Cuba 11,266,000[68] 11,266,000[113] 11.198.404 (99.4%)[76]
  Dominican Republic 10,404,000[68] 9,300,000[114] 10.362.384 (99.6%)[76]
  Bolivia 10,426,154[115] 6.047.169 (58%)[116] 9.164.589 (87.9%)[76]
  Honduras 8,215,313[117] 8,007,563[118] 8.133.160 (99.0%)[76]
  France 65,635,000[119] 477,564 (1%[120] of 47,756,439[121]) 1,910,258 (4%[122] of 47,756,439[121]) 6,685,901 (14%[123] of 47,756,439[121])
  El Salvador 6,183,002[124] 6,168,902[125] 6.164.453 (99.7%)[76]
  Nicaragua 6,042,000[68] 5,551,876[126] 5.860.740 (97.0%)[76]
  Italy 59,685,227[127] 1,037,248 (2%[122] of 51,862,391[121]) 5,704,863 (11%[123] of 51,862,391[121])
  Paraguay 6,802,000[68] 3,877,140 (57%)[128] 4.727.390 (69.5%)[76]
  Costa Rica 4,667,096[129] 4,581,678[130] 4.629.759 (99.2%)[76]
  Puerto Rico 3,667,084[131] 3.487.397 (95.1%)[132] 3.623.079 (98.8%)[76]
  Panama 3,864,000[133] 3,362,957[134] 3.597.384 (93.1%)[76]
  Morocco 31,759,997[135] 6,586[110] 6,586 3,415,000[110][136] (21.9%)[137]
  United Kingdom 63,181,775[138] 120,000 518,480 (1%[122] of 51,848,010[121]) 3,110,880 (6%[123] of 51,848,010[121])
  Uruguay 3,286,314[139] 3,136,114[140] 3.250.165 (98.9%)[76]
  Philippines 97,866,000[141] 3,325[142] 438,882[143] 3,016,773[144][145][146][147][148][149][150]
  Germany 80,327,900[151] 644,091 (1%[122] of 64,409,146[121]) 2,576,366 (4%[123] of 64,409,146[121])
  Equatorial Guinea 1,622,000[152] 1,683[153] 918,000[76] (90.5%)[76][154]
  Canada 34,605,346[155] 439,000[156] 909,000[110][157] 1,001,853[110]
  Romania 21,355,849[158] 182,467 (1%[122] of 18,246,731[121]) 912,337 (5%[123] of 18,246,731[121])
  Portugal 10,636,888[159] 323,237 (4%[122] of 8,080,915[121]) 808,091 (10%[123] of 8,080,915[121])
  Netherlands 16,665,900[160] 133,719 (1%[122] of 13,371,980[121]) 668,599 (5%[123] of 13,371,980[121] )
  Sweden 9,555,893[161] 77,912 (1%[120] of 7,791,240[121]) 77,912 (1% of 7,791,240) 467,474 (6%[123] of 7,791,240[121])
  Australia 21,507,717[162] 111,400[163] 111,400 447,175[164]
  Belgium 10,918,405[165] 89,395 (1%[122] of 8,939,546[121]) 446,977 (5%[123] of 8,939,546[121])
  Poland 38,092,000 324,137 (1%[122] of 32,413,735[121]) 324,137 (1% of 32,413,735)
  Austria 8,205,533 70,098 (1%[122] of 7,009,827[121]) 280,393 (4%[123] of 7,009,827[121])
  Ivory Coast 20,179,602 235,806 (students)[75]
  Algeria 33,769,669 223,422[110]
  Belize 333,200[166] 173,597[110] 173,597[110] 195,597[110] (62.8%)[167]
  Denmark 5,484,723 45,613 (1%[122] of 4,561,264[121]) 182,450 (4%[123] of 4,561,264[121])
  Israel 7,112,359 130,000[110] 175,231[168]
  Japan 127,288,419 167,514[75]
  Ireland 4,581,269[169] 35,220 (1%[122] of 3,522,000[121]) 140,880 (4%[123] of 3,522,000[121])
  Switzerland 7,581,520 86,000[110] (1.7%)[170] 111,000[110] 111,000[110]
  Finland 5,244,749 133,200 (3%[123] of 4,440,004[121])
  Bulgaria 7,262,675 130,750 (2%[122] of 6,537,510[121]) 130,750 (2%[123] of 6,537,510[121])
  Netherlands Antilles 223,652 10,699[110] 10,699[110] 125,534[110]
  Senegal 12,853,259 101,455[75]
  Czech Republic 10,513,209[171] 90,124 (1%[123] of 9,012,443[121])
  Hungary 9,957,731[172] 83,206 (1%[123] of 8,320,614[121])
  Aruba 101,484[173] 6,800[110] 6,800[110] 75,402[110]
  Trinidad and Tobago 1,317,714[174] 4,100[110] 4,100[110] 65,886[110] (5%)[175]
  Cameroon 21,599,100[176] 63,560 (students)[75]
  Andorra 84,484 33,305[110] 33,305[110] 54,909[110]
  Slovenia 35,194 (2%[122] of 1,759,701[121]) 52,791 (3%[123] of 1,759,701[121])
  New Zealand 21,645[177] 21,645 47,322 (25,677 students)[75]
  Slovakia 5,455,407 45,500 (1%[123] of 4,549,955[121])
  Norway 4,644,457 12,573[178] 36,250[75]
  China 1,339,724,852[179] 30,000 (students)[180]
  Gibraltar 29,441[181] 22,758 (77.3%[182])
  Lithuania 2,972,949[183] 28,297 (1%[123] of 2,829,740[121])
  Luxembourg 524,853 4,049 (1%[120] of 404,907[121]) 8,098 (2%[122] of 404,907[121]) 24,294 (6%[123] of 404,907[121])
  Russia 143,400,000[184] 3,320[110] 3,320[110] 23,320[110]
  Western Sahara 513,000[185] n.a.[186] 22,000[110]
  Guam 19,092[187]
  US Virgin Islands 16,788[188] 16,788[110] 16,788[110]
  Latvia 2,209,000[189] 13,943 (1%[123] of 1,447,866[121])
  Turkey 73,722,988[190] 1,134[110] 1,134[110] 13,480[110][191]
  Cyprus 2%[123] of 660,400[121]
  India 1,210,193,422[192] 9,750 (students)[193]
  Estonia 9,457 (1%[123] of 945,733[121])
  Jamaica 2,711,476[194] 8,000[195] 8,000[195] 8,000[195]
  Namibia 3,870[196]
  Egypt 3,500[197]
  Malta 3,354 (1%[123] of 335,476[121])
  European Union (excluded Spain) 460,624,488[198] 2,397,000 (559,525 already counted)[199]
Total 7,228,000,000 (Total World Population)[200] 440.279.575[2][201] 480.896.569 [2] (6,66%) 531.760.408 [2][202][203] (7,36%)

Dialectal variation

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A world map attempting to identify the main dialects of Spanish.
Artikel utama: Spanish dialects and varieties

There are important variations—phonological, grammatical, and lexical—in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas.

The variety with the most speakers is Mexican Spanish. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112 million of the total of more than 500 million, according to the table above). One of its main features is the reduction or loss of unstressed vowels, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.[204][205]

In Spain, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. Even so, the speech of Madrid, which has typically southern features such as yeísmo and s-aspiration, is the standard variety for use on radio and television.[206][207][208][209] The educated Madrid variety has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.[210]

Phonology

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The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the sound of the spelled ⟨s⟩, (2) the debuccalization of syllable-final /s/, (3) the phoneme /θ/ ("theta"), (4) and the phoneme /ʎ/ ("turned y"),[211]

  • The sound of the spelled ⟨s⟩ is pronounced in northern Spain as a Voiceless "apico-alveolar" "grave" sibilant [s̺], with a weak "hushing" sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. In most of Hispanic America (except in Paisa Region, Colombia) is pronounced as in English, as a Voiceless alveolar "hissing" sibilant [s]. This difference, because the sounds of the spelled ⟨s⟩ is one of the most common in Spanish, is usually the first to be noted by a Spanish-speaking person to differentiate Spaniards and Hispanic Americans.
  • The debuccalization (pronunciation as [h], or loss) of syllable-final /s/ is associated with southern Spain and lowland Americas: Central America (except central Costa Rica and Guatemala), the Caribbean, coastal areas of southern Mexico, and South America except Andean highlands. Debuccalization is frequently called "aspiration" in English, and aspiración in Spanish. When there is no debuccalization, the syllable-final /s/ is pronounced as Voiceless "apico-alveolar" "grave" sibilant or as a Voiceless alveolar "hissing" sibilant in the same fashion as in the past paragraph.
  • The phoneme /θ/ (spelled c before e or i and spelled ⟨z⟩ elsewhere)—a voiceless dental fricative as in English thing—is maintained by a majority of Spain's population, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. This maintenance of phonemic contrast is called distinción in Spanish. In other areas—southern Spain, the Canary Islands, and the Americas—/θ/ is merged with /s/. In Spanish this merger is generally called seseo (in reference to the usual realization of the merged phoneme as [s]) or, occasionally, ceceo (referring to its interdental realization, [θ], in some parts of southern Spain). In Hispanic America the spelled ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and spelled ⟨z⟩ is always pronounced as a Voiceless alveolar "hissing" sibilant.
  • The phoneme /ʎ/ spelled ll —a palatal lateral consonant sometimes compared in sound to the lli of English million—tends to be maintained in less-urbanized areas of northern Spain and in highland areas of South America. Meanwhile, in the speech of most other Spanish-speakers, it is merged with /ʝ/ ("curly-tail j")—a non-lateral, usually voiced, usually fricative, palatal consonant—sometimes compared to English /j/ (yod) as in yacht, and spelled ⟨y⟩ in Spanish. As with other forms of allophony across world languages, this small difference of the spelled ⟨ll⟩ and the spelled ⟨y⟩ is usually not perceived (the difference is not heard) by the people who do not produce them as different phonemes. Such a phonemic merger is called yeísmo in Spanish. In Rioplatense Spanish, this merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a postalveolar fricative, either voiced [ʒ] (as in English measure or the French ⟨j⟩) in the central and western parts of the dialectal region (zheísmo), or voiceless [ʃ] (as in the French ⟨ch⟩ or Portuguese ⟨x⟩) in and around Buenos Aires (sheísmo).[212]

Grammar

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The main grammatical variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of pronouns: especially those of the second person and, to a lesser extent, the object pronouns of the third person.

Voseo

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Artikel utama: Voseo
 
An examination of the dominance and stress of the voseo dialect in Hispanic America. Data generated as illustrated by the Association of Spanish Language Academies. The darker the area, the stronger its dominance.

Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the distinction between a formal and a familiar register in the second-person singular, and thus have two different pronouns meaning "you": usted in the formal, and either tú or vos in the familiar (and each of these three pronouns has its associated verb forms), with the choice of tú or vos varying from one dialect to another. The use of vos (and/or its verb forms) is called voseo. In a few dialects, all three pronouns are used—usted, tú, and vos—denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.[213]

In voseo, vos is the subject form (vos decís, "you say") and the form for the object of a preposition (voy con vos, "I'm going with you"), while the direct and indirect object forms, and the possessives, are the same as those associated with tú: Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan ("You know your friends respect you"). Additional examples: "Vos te acostaste con el tuerto" (Gené Ulf [Arg. 1988]); "Lugar que odio [...] como te odio a vos" (Rossi María [C. Rica 1985]); "No cerrés tus ojos" (Flores Siguamonta [Guat. 1993]).

The verb forms of general voseo are the same as those used with tú except in the present tense (indicative and imperative) verbs. The forms for vos generally can be derived from those of vosotros (the traditional second-person familiar plural) by deleting the glide [i̯], or /d/, where it appears in the ending: vosotros pensáis > vos pensás; vosotros volvéis > vos volvés, pensad! (vosotros) > pensá! (vos), volved! (vosotros) > volvé! (vos) .

General voseo (River Plate Spanish)
Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
Present Past Conditional Present Past
pensás pensabas pensarías pienses pensaras pensá
volvés volvías volverías vuelvas volvieras volvé
dormís dormías dormirías duermas durmieras dormí
The forms in bold coincide with standard tú-conjugation.

In Chilean voseo on the other hand, almost all verb forms are distinct from their standard tú-forms.

Chilean voseo
Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
Present Past Conditional Present Past
pensái pensabai pensaríai pensís pensarai piensa
volvís volvíai volveríai volvái volvierai vuelve
dormís dormíai dormiríai durmái durmierai duerme
The forms in bold coincide with standard tú-conjugation.

The use of the pronoun vos with the verb forms of tú (e.g. vos piensas) is called "pronominal voseo". And conversely, the use of the verb forms of vos with the pronoun tú (e.g. tú pensás or tú pensái) is called "verbal voseo".
In Chile, for example, verbal voseo is much more common than the actual use of the pronoun vos which is often reserved for deeply informal situations.

Distribution in Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas
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Although vos is not used in Spain, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular familiar pronoun, although with wide differences in social consideration. Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of tuteo in the following areas: almost all of Mexico, the West Indies, Panama, most of Peru and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and the Caribbean coast of Colombia.

Tuteo (the use of tú) as a cultured form alternates with voseo as a popular or rural form in Bolivia, in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of Zulia), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that voseo can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.[214]

Tuteo exists as the second-person usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar voseo in Chile, in the Venezuelan state of Zulia, on the Caribbean coast of Colombia (Montería, Sincelejo, Cartagena, Barranquilla, Riohacha and Valledupar), in the Azuero Peninsula in Panama, in the Mexican state of Chiapas, and in parts of Guatemala.

Areas of generalized voseo include Argentina, Costa Rica, eastern Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Colombian departments of Antioquia (the second largest in population), Caldas, Risaralda, Quindio, and parts of The Valle del Cauca department.[213]

Ustedes

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Ustedes functions as formal and informal second person plural in over 90% of the Spanish-speaking world, including all of Hispanic America, the Canary Islands, and some regions of Andalusia. In Seville, Cadiz, and other parts of western Andalusia, the familiar form is constructed as ustedes vais, using the traditional second-person plural form of the verb. Most of Spain maintains the formal/familiar distinction with ustedes and vosotros respectively.

Usted

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Usted is the usual second-person singular pronoun in a formal context, used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a familiar context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica, and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of tú or vos. This usage is sometimes called ustedeo in Spanish.

In Central America, especially in Honduras, usted is often used as a formal pronoun to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. Usted is also used in this way, as well as between parents and children, in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.

Third-person object pronouns

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Most speakers use (and the Real Academia Española prefers) the pronouns lo and la for direct objects (masculine and feminine respectively, regardless of animacy, meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and le for indirect objects (regardless of gender or animacy, meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). This usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object pronouns are a continuation, respectively, of the accusative and dative pronouns of Latin, the ancestor language of Spanish.

Deviations from this norm (more common in Spain than in the Americas) are called "leísmo", "loísmo", or "laísmo", according to which respective pronoun—le, lo, or la—has expanded beyond the etymological usage (i.e. le as a direct object, or lo or la as an indirect object).

Vocabulary

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Museum of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army.

Some words can be different, even significantly so, in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms, even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish mantequilla, aguacate and albaricoque (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to manteca, palta, and damasco, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except manteca), Paraguay, Peru (except manteca and damasco), and Uruguay.

The everyday Spanish words coger ('to take'), pisar ('to step on') and concha ('seashell') are considered extremely rude in parts of Hispanic America, where the meaning of coger and pisar is also "to have sex" and concha means "vagina". The Puerto Rican word for "bobby pin" (pinche) is an obscenity in Mexico, but in Nicaragua it simply means "stingy", and in Spain refers to a chef's helper. Other examples include taco, which means "swearword" (among other meanings) in Spain, "traffic jam" in Chile and "heels" (shoe) in Argentina and Peru but is known to the rest of the world as a Mexican dish.

Pija in many countries of Hispanic America and Spain itself is an obscene slang word for "penis", while in Spain the word also signifies "posh girl" or "snobby". Coche, which means "car" in Spain, central Mexico and Argentina, for the vast majority of Spanish-speakers actually means "baby-stroller" or "pushchair", while carro means "car" in some Hispanic American countries and "cart" in others, as well as in Spain. Papaya is the slang term for "vagina" in parts of Cuba and Venezuela, where the fruit is instead called fruta bomba and lechosa, respectively.[215] Also, in Argentina, one would say piña when talking about punching someone else, whereas in other countries, piña refers to a pineapple.

Relation to other languages

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Informasi lebih lanjut: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

Spanish is closely related to the other West Iberian Romance languages, including Asturian, Aragonese, Galician, Ladino, Leonese, Mirandese and Portuguese.

It is generally acknowledged that Portuguese- and Spanish-speakers can communicate, although with varying degrees of difficulty.[216][217][218][219] Meanwhile, mutual intelligibility of the written Spanish and Portuguese languages is somewhat higher, given that the difficulties of the spoken forms are based more on phonology than on grammatical and lexical dissimilarities. Ethnologue gives estimates of the lexical similarity between related languages in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portuguese, that figure is 89%. Italian, on the other hand—although its phonology is more similar to that of Spanish—is said to have a lexical similarity of 82%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and French or between Spanish and Romanian is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.[220] And comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication.

The following table compares the forms of some common words in several Romance languages:

Latin Spanish Galician Portuguese Astur-Leonese Aragonese Catalan French Italian Romanian English
nos nosotros nós1 nós1 nós, nosotros nusatros nosaltres
(arch. nós) 		nous2 noi3 noi 'we'
frater germanum
(lit. "true brother") 		hermano irmán irmão hermanu chirmán germà
(arch. frare)4 		frère fratello frate 'brother'
dies martis (Classical)
feria tertia (Ecclesiastical) 		martes martes/terza feira terça-feira martes martes dimarts mardi martedì marți 'Tuesday'
cantiō(nem)
canticum 		canción
cántico 		canción/cançom5
cántico 		canção canción
(or canciu) 		canta cançó chanson canzone cântec 'song'
magis
plus 		más
(arch. plus) 		máis mais
(arch. chus or plus) 		más más
(or més) 		més
(arch. pus or plus) 		plus più mai/plus 'more'
manum sinistram mano izquierda6
(arch. mano siniestra) 		man esquerda6 mão esquerda6
(arch. mão sẽestra) 		manu izquierda6
(or esquierda;
also manzorga) 		man cucha mà esquerra6
(arch. mà sinistra) 		main gauche mano sinistra mâna stângă 'left hand'
nihil
nullam rem natam
(lit. "no thing born") 		nada nada
(also ren and res) 		nada
(neca and nula rés
in some expressions; arch. rem) 		nada
(also un res) 		cosa res rien/nul niente/nulla nimic/nul 'nothing'
cāseus formaticus queso queixo queijo quesu queso formatge fromage formaggio/cacio caș7 'cheese'

1. Also nós outros in early modern Portuguese (e.g. The Lusiads), and nosoutros in Galician.
2. Alternatively nous autres in French.
3. Also noialtri in Southern Italian dialects and languages.
4. Medieval Catalan (e.g. Llibre dels fets).
5. Depending on the written norm used (see Reintegracionism).
6. From Basque esku, "hand" + erdi, "half, incomplete". Notice that this negative meaning also applies for Latin sinistra(m) ("dark, unfortunate").
7. Note that Romanian caș (from Latin cāsevs) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is brânză (from unknown etymology).[221]

Judaeo-Spanish

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Info lebih lanjut: Judaeo-Spanish
 
Inscription in standard Spanish and Judaeo-Spanish in Jaén.

Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,[222] is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and Portuguese is spoken by descendants of the Sephardi Jews who were expelled from Spain in the fifteenth century.[222] Conversely, in Portugal the vast majority of the Portuguese Jews converted and became 'New Christians'. Therefore, its relationship to Spanish is comparable with that of the Yiddish language to German. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively Sephardi Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkey, and the United States, with a few communities in Hispanic America.[222] Judaeo-Spanish lacks the Native American vocabulary which was acquired by standard Spanish during the Spanish colonial period, and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from Hebrew, French, Greek and Turkish, and other languages spoken where the Sephardim settled.

Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly olim (immigrants to Israel) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In the case of the Latin American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to the risk of assimilation by modern Castilian.

A related dialect is Haketia, the Judaeo-Spanish of northern Morocco. This too tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region.

Writing system

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Artikel utama: Spanish orthography

Templat:Spanish language

Spanish is written in the Latin script, with the addition of the character ⟨ñ⟩ (eñe, representing the phoneme /ɲ/, a letter distinct from ⟨n⟩, although typographically composed of an ⟨n⟩ with a tilde) and the digraphs ⟨ch⟩ (che, representing the phoneme /t͡ʃ/) and ⟨ll⟩ (elle, representing the phoneme /ʎ/). However, the digraph ⟨rr⟩ (erre fuerte, 'strong r', erre doble, 'double r', or simply erre), which also represents a distinct phoneme /r/, is not similarly regarded as a single letter. Since 1994 ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ have been treated as letter pairs for collation purposes, though they remain a part of the alphabet. Words with ⟨ch⟩ are now alphabetically sorted between those with ⟨cg⟩ and ⟨ci⟩, instead of following ⟨cz⟩ as they used to. The situation is similar for ⟨ll⟩.[223][224]

Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 letters and 2 digraphs:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ñ, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.[225]
Ch,[226] Ll.[227]

The letters k and w are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages (kilo, folklore, whisky, kiwi, etc.).

With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as México (see Toponymy of Mexico), pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word is stressed on the syllable before the last if it ends with a vowel (not including ⟨y⟩) or with a vowel followed by ⟨n⟩ or an ⟨s⟩; it is stressed on the last syllable otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an acute accent on the stressed vowel.

The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain homophones, especially when one of them is a stressed word and the other one is a clitic: compare el ('the', masculine singular definite article) with él ('he' or 'it'), or te ('you', object pronoun) with té ('tea'), de (preposition 'of') versus dé ('give' [formal imperative/third-person present subjunctive]), and se (reflexive pronoun) versus sé ('I know' or imperative 'be').

The interrogative pronouns (qué, cuál, dónde, quién, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives (ése, éste, aquél, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. Accent marks used to be omitted in capital letters (a widespread practice in the days of typewriters and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with accents), although the Real Academia Española advises against this and the orthographic conventions taught at schools enforce the use of the accent.

When u is written between g and a front vowel e or i, it indicates a "hard g" pronunciation. A diaeresis ü indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., cigüeña, 'stork', is pronounced [θiˈɣweɲa]; if it were written *cigueña, it would be pronounced *[θiˈɣeɲa]).

Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with inverted question and exclamation marks (¿ and ¡, respectively).

Organizations

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The Royal Spanish Academy Headquarters in Madrid, Spain.

Royal Spanish Academy

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Artikel utama: Real Academia Española
 
Arms of the Royal Spanish Academy

The Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), founded in 1713,[228] together with the 21 other national ones (see Association of Spanish Language Academies), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.[229] Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media.

Association of Spanish Language Academies

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Artikel utama: Association of Spanish Language Academies
 
Countries members of the ASALE.[230]

The Association of Spanish Language Academies (Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, or ASALE) is the entity which regulates the Spanish language. It was created in Mexico in 1951 and represents the union of all the separate academies in the Spanish-speaking world. It comprises the academies of 22 countries, ordered by date of Academy foundation: Spain (1713),[231] Colombia (1871),[232] Ecuador (1874),[233] Mexico (1875),[234] El Salvador (1876),[235] Venezuela (1883),[236] Chile (1885),[237] Peru (1887),[238] Guatemala (1887),[239] Costa Rica (1923),[240] Philippines (1924),[241] Panama (1926),[242] Cuba (1926),[243] Paraguay (1927),[244] Dominican Republic (1927),[245] Bolivia (1927),[246] Nicaragua (1928),[247] Argentina (1931),[248] Uruguay (1943),[249] Honduras (1949),[250] Puerto Rico (1955),[251] and United States (1973).[252]

Cervantes Institute

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Artikel utama: Instituto Cervantes
 
Cervantes Institute headquarters, Madrid

The Instituto Cervantes (Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide non-profit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. This organization has branched out in over 20 different countries with 54 centers devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American culture and Spanish Language. The ultimate goals of the Institute are to promote the education, the study and the use of Spanish universally as a second language, to support the methods and activities that would help the process of Spanish language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures throughout non-Spanish-speaking countries.

Official use by international organizations

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Spanish is recognised as one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the African Union, the Union of South American Nations, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, the Latin Union, the Caricom and the North American Free Trade Agreement.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Instituto Cervantes (2014): cervantes.es (pages 8 to 12)
  3. ^ Ethnologue: Mandarin 1026 mill. (848 mill. L1 + 178 mill. L2), English 840 mill. (335 mill. L1 + 505 mill. L2), Spanish 488 mill. (399 mill. L1 + 89,5 mill. L2), Hindi 380 mill. (260 mill. L1 + 120 mill. L2)
  4. ^ krysstal.com (Kryss Katsiavriades y Talaat Qureshi)
  5. ^ George Weber, 1997: Mandarin 1,120 mill., English 480 mill., Spanish 320 mill., Russian 285 mill., French 265 mill., Hindi 250 mill. (ignatius.edu).
  6. ^ Instituto Cervantes: (cervantes.es, El País)
  7. ^ La RAE avala que Burgos acoge las primeras palabras escritas en castellano (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: El mundo, 2010-11-07 
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  110. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj El español en el mundo (PDF), ES: Instituto Cervantes, 2012, hlm. 6 
  111. ^ Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, president of Brazil: Near 9 million students are learning Spanish and the forecast is 12 million in 2010, CO: OEI 
  112. ^ Español en Brasil (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: Instituto Cervantes, More than 1 million of Spanish students in the private school and almost 11 million estimated for 2010 in the public school 
  113. ^ "Cuba". Country (report). Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  114. ^ Ethnologue (1999-02-19). "(2011)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  115. ^ "(2010)". INE. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21. 
  116. ^ According to the 1992 Census, 58 per cent of the population speaks Spanish as its mother tongue. unicef.org
  117. ^ "INE (2011)". Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  118. ^ There are 207,750 people who speak another language, mainly Garifuna (98,000).: Ethnologue
  119. ^ "INSEE estimate to 1/11/2012". Insee.fr. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  120. ^ a b c Eurobarometr 2012 (page T40): Native speakers.
  121. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap Eurobarometr 2012 (page TS2): Population older than 15. (age scale used for the Eurobarometer survey)
  122. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Eurobarometr 2012 (page T74): Non native people who speak Spanish very well.
  123. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Eurobarometr 2012 (page T64): Non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.
  124. ^ Census 2010 estimation (page 32)
  125. ^ There are 14,100 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main language, Kekchí with 12,300 speakers): Ethnologue.
  126. ^ There are 490,124 people who speak another language, mainly Mískito (154,000).: Ethnologue
  127. ^ "Resident population and population change". Istat.it. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  128. ^ According to the 1992 census, 50% use both Spanish and the indigenous language Guarani at home, 37% speak Guarani only, 7% speak Spanish only.findarticles.com. About 75 percent can speak Spanish.pressreference.com
  129. ^ "Primera variación del año registró un 0,68%". INEC. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  130. ^ There are 85,418 people who speak another language
  131. ^ "2012 US. census Bureau" (PDF). 
  132. ^ 95.10% of the population speaks Spanish (US. Census Bureau)
  133. ^ Census INE estimate for 2013 (véase "Proyección de Población por municipio 2008-2020")
  134. ^ There are 501,043 people who speak another language as mother tongue: PA, Ethnologue 
  135. ^ "Morocco census". Hcp.ma. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  136. ^ El español en el contexto Sociolingüístico marroquí: Evolución y perspectivas (page 39): Between 4 and 7 million people have Spanish knowledge (M. Ammadi, 2002)
  137. ^ "(2005)" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). realinstitutoelcano.org. 2008-09-26. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  138. ^ "Census 2011". U.K. Gov. Census. 2012-04-02. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  139. ^ "2011 Uruguayan Census". 2011. 
  140. ^ There are 150,200 people who speak another language as mother tongue, UY, Ethnologue 
  141. ^ Medium projection, PH: National Statistics Office, 2010 
  142. ^ Spanish immigrants in the world according to (INE (1/1/2013))
  143. ^ "native knowledge speakers" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Realinstitutoelcano.org. 2009-02-18. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  144. ^ 1,816,773 Spanish + 1,200,000 Spanish creole: Quilis, Antonio (1996), La lengua española en Filipinas (PDF), Cervantes virtual, hlm. 54 and 55 
  145. ^ Ten Reasons (PDF), ES: Mepsyd, hlm. 23 
  146. ^ Philippines, Spanish differences 
  147. ^ Spanish in the world 2012 (Instituto Cervantes): 3,017,265 Spanish speakers. 439,000 with native knowladge, 2,557,773 with limited knowladge (page 6), and 20,492 Spanish students (page 10).
  148. ^ Nestor Diaz: More than 2 million Spanish speakers and around 3 million with Chavacano speakers (2010-04-24). "FILIPINAS / Vigoroso regreso del español". Aresprensa.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  149. ^ The figure of 2 900 000 Spanish speakers is in Thompson, RW, Pluricentric languages: differing norms in different nations, hlm. 45 
  150. ^ World wide Spanish language, Sispain 
  151. ^ German census, DE: Destatis, 2011-12-31 
  152. ^ "Equatorial Guinea census". Population statistics. 2010. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21. 
  153. ^ Spanish according to INE 2011
  154. ^ 14% of the population speaks Spanish natively and other 74% as a second language: "Anuario", CVC (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: Cervantes, 2007 
  155. ^ Statcan, CA: GC 
  156. ^ "www12.statcan.gc.ca/census". 2.statcan.gc.ca. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  157. ^ elcorreo.ca
  158. ^ "Eurostat (1/1/2012 estimate)". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2013-10-17. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  159. ^ Eurostat 1/1/2010
  160. ^ "Netherland Census ClockPop". Cbs.nl. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  161. ^ 2012 census[pranala nonaktif]
  162. ^ "2011 Census". Censusdata.abs.gov.au. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  163. ^ "2071.0 - Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013". Abs.gov.au. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14. 
  164. ^ Page 32 of the "Demografía de la lengua española"
  165. ^ "Eurostat estimate to 1/1/2011". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2012-04-02. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  166. ^ statisticsbelize.org.bz (2009 mid-year)[pranala nonaktif]
  167. ^ Page 32 of Demografía de la lengua española (52,1% native speakers + 11,7% with some Spanish knowladge))
  168. ^ Pages 34, 35 of the "Demografía de la lengua española", page 35.
  169. ^ [1][pranala nonaktif]
  170. ^ "all-about-switzerland.info". all-about-switzerland.info. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21. 
  171. ^ "czso.cz" (dalam bahasa Cheska). czso.cz. 2013-12-31. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  172. ^ "(2012)". ksh.hu. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  173. ^ "Resultado 2010 - Persona". Censo2010.aw. 2010-10-06. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  174. ^ [2][pranala nonaktif]
  175. ^ http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_41.pdf
  176. ^ Evolution de la population par sexe de 1976 à 2012 en: Annuaire Statistique du Cameroun 2010. Consultado el 23-08-2012.
  177. ^ "New Zealand census (2006)". Stats.govt.nz. 2009-02-13. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  178. ^ "cvc.cervantes.es". cvc.cervantes.es. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  179. ^ "Press Release on Major Figures of the 2010 National Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  180. ^ 25,000 Spanish students in the university + 5,000 in the "Instituto Cervantes"cervantes.es (page 4)
  181. ^ "Statistics - FAQ's". Gibraltar.gov.gi. 2012-11-12. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  182. ^ www.um.es (5.2. Datos descriptivos de los usos de español e inglés, Gráfico 2). 77.3% of the Gibraltar population speak Spanish with their mother more, or equal than English.
  183. ^ "(2013)". db1.stat.gov.lt. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  184. ^ "Демография". Gks.ru. 2011-12-27. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  185. ^ "2009 estimate" (PDF). UN. 2008. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21. 
  186. ^ The Spanish 1970 census claims 16.648 Spanish speakers in Western Sahara ([3]) but probably most of them were people born in Spain who left after the Moroccan annexation
  187. ^ Page 34 of the Demografía de la Lengua Española
  188. ^ "2010 Census". Census.gov. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14. 
  189. ^ "Population - Key Indicators | Latvijas statistika". Csb.gov.lv. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14. 
  190. ^ "::Welcome to Turkish Statistical Institute(TurkStat)'s Web Pages::". TurkStat. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  191. ^ 8,000 (Page 37 of the Demografía de la lengua española) + 4,346 Spanish Students (according to the Instituto Cervantes)
  192. ^ "Census of India : Provisional Population Totals : India :Census 2011". Censusindia.gov.in. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  193. ^ "cervantes.es (page 6)" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  194. ^ "Jamaican Population". Statinja.gov.jm. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  195. ^ a b c Languages of Jamaica,
  196. ^ El español en Namibia, 2005. Instituto Cervantes.
  197. ^ "cvc.cervantes.es" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  198. ^ "Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2013-10-17. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24. 
  199. ^ Demografía de la lengua española, page 37 (2,397,000 people speak Spanish as a native language in the E.U. excluded Spain, but It is already counted population who speak Spanish as a native language in France (477,564), Sweden (77,912) and Luxemburg (4,049)).
  200. ^ "International Programs - People and Households - U.S. Census Bureau". Census.gov. 2013-04-12. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20. 
  201. ^ Instituto Cervantes and British Council (420 million Spanish native speakers)
  202. ^ "The 30 Most Spoken Languages in the World". KryssTal. Diakses tanggal 2013-01-16. 
  203. ^ "500 millones de razones para saber español | Edición impresa | EL PAÍS". Elpais.com. Diakses tanggal 2013-01-16. 
  204. ^ Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) Spanish in the Americas, Volume 2, pp.154-155, URL
  205. ^ Lope Blanch, Juan M. (1972) En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano, pp.53 a 73, Estudios sobre el español de México, editorial Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México URL.
  206. ^ Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Random House Inc. 2006. 
  207. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (edisi ke-4th). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2006. 
  208. ^ Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 1998. 
  209. ^ Encarta World English Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. 2007. Diakses tanggal 2008-08-05. 
  210. ^ Penny, Ralph (2000). Variation and Change in Spanish. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 199. ISBN 0-521-78045-4. whatever might be claimed by other centres, such as Valladolid, it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard. 
  211. ^ The IPA symbol "turned y" (ʎ), with its "tail" leaning to the right, resembles, but is technically different from, the Greek letter lambda (λ), whose tail leans to the left.
  212. ^ Charles B. Chang, "Variation in palatal production in Buenos Aires Spanish". Selected Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Maurice Westmoreland and Juan Antonio Thomas, 54-63. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 2008.
  213. ^ a b "Real Academia Española" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Buscon.rae.es. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21. 
  214. ^ Katia Salamanca de Abreu, review of Humberto López Morales, Estudios sobre el español de Cuba (New York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970), in Thesaurus, 28 (1973), 138-146.
  215. ^ "3 Guys From Miami: Fruta Bomba". Cuban-food-usa.com. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21. 
  216. ^ Jensen 1989
  217. ^ Penny 2000: 14
  218. ^ Dalby 1998: 501
  219. ^ Ginsburgh and Weber 2011: 90
  220. ^ "Spanish". Ethnologue. 
  221. ^ Often considered to be a substratum word. Other theories suggest, on the basis of what is used to make cheese, a derivation from Latin brandeum (originally meaning a linen covering, later a thin cloth for relic storage) through an intermediate root *brandea. For the development of the meaning, cf. Spanish manteca, Portuguese manteiga, probably from Latin mantica ('sack'), Italian formaggio and French fromage from formaticus. Romanian Explanatory Dictionary
  222. ^ a b c Alfassa, Shelomo (December 1999). "Ladinokomunita". Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture. Diakses tanggal 4 February 2010. 
  223. ^ Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 1st ed.
  224. ^ Real Academia Española, Explanation at Spanish Pronto (Spanyol), (Inggris)
  225. ^ "Abecedario". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Real Academia Española. 2005. Diakses tanggal 2008-06-23. 
  226. ^ "Ch". Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española. 
  227. ^ "Ll". Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española. 
  228. ^ "Scholarly Societies Project". Lib.uwaterloo.ca. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  229. ^ Batchelor, Ronald Ernest (1992). Using Spanish: a guide to contemporary usage. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 318. ISBN 0-521-26987-3. 
  230. ^ "Association of Spanish Language Academies" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Asale. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  231. ^ "Real Academia Española". Spain: RAE. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  232. ^ "Academia Colombiana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Colombia. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  233. ^ "Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Ecuador. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  234. ^ "Academia Mexicana de la Lengua". Mexico. 2010-09-22. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  235. ^ "Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua". El Salvador. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  236. ^ "Academia Venezolana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Venezuela. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  237. ^ "Academia Chilena de la Lengua". Chile. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  238. ^ "Academia Peruana de la Lengua". Peru. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  239. ^ "Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Guatemala. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  240. ^ "Academia Costarricense de la Lengua". Costa Rica. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  241. ^ "Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Philippines. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  242. ^ "Academia Panameña de la Lengua". Panama. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  243. ^ "Academia Cubana de la Lengua". Cuba. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06. 
  244. ^ "Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española". Paraguay. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  245. ^ "Academia Dominicana de la Lengua". República Dominicana. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  246. ^ "Academia Boliviana de la Lengua". Bolivia. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  247. ^ "Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Nicaragua. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  248. ^ "Academia Argentina de Letras". Argentina. 2010-03-25. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  249. ^ "Academia Nacional de Letras del Uruguay". Uruguay. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  250. ^ "Academia Hondureña de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Honduras. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  251. ^ "Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española". Puerto Rico. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  252. ^ "Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española". United States. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05. 
  253. ^ A First Spanish Reader, by Erwin W. Roessler and Alfred Remy

Bibliography

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