Pengguna:Rochelimit/Sandbox

Koin kuno di Indonesia

1 masa koin emas masing-masing 5 milimeter.

By the 10th-century, Java had the most complex economies in Southeast Asia. Despite the importance of rice farming which acts as a king of tax income for the Javanese courts, the influx of sea trade in Asia between the 10th and 13th centuries forced a more convenient currency to the Javanese economy. During the late 8th-century, a kind of ingots made of gold and silver were introduced. These are the Early Indonesian coins.

Early development in Central Java

In Java, rice farming was still the main occupation of most households in the village. This continued to provide most of the tax income of the Javanese courts. Later in the period, the northern coasts of Java and Bali became the main center of an affluent export trade in local agricultural products and manufactures, as well as spices e.g. sandalwood from east of Indonesia. These trade brought shipping industry to distant markets e.g. China and India. The increasing intensity of trade called for a convenient currency in the Javanese society.

During the late 8th-century money took the form of ingots made of gold and silver. These are the earliest recorded coins in Indonesia. The currency in Indonesia is based on weight; the most common units were the kati of 750 gram (26 oz), tahil of 38 gram (1,3 oz), masa 24 gram (0,85 oz) and kupang 06 gram (0,21 oz). These units were legal tender for tax payments. The kati, tahil, masa and kupang units remained in use up until the Dutch period. Several trade jargon were introduced in this period, e.g. the Javanese wli, which became the modern Indonesian beli ("buy"), and the Sanskrit wyaya, modern Indonesian term biaya ("expenses") appears in two inscriptions both dated 878 AD. The Javanese coins have no parallels with the style of Indian coins. Most of the Javanese coins were found within the Javanese kingdom of Shailendra.

Gold coins

A gold coin of probably the highest denomination of ka.

Most gold coins of 9th and early 10th century Java are stamped with the character ta in nagari script on one side, an abbreviation of tahil. The same character remain on coins until the Kediri Kingdom period in the 12th-century. Gold coins were usually made in the shape of cubes, carefully crafted and very uniform and size and gold content.

Silver coins

Sandalwood decoration or quatrefoil appeared in the silver ingot on the picture below.

Central Javanese silver coins have very different shape compared with the gold coins. Most silver coins are round and known as "sandalwood flower" coins referring to the four-petaled flower (quatrefoil) found on the reverse. The silver coins lasted from the early 9th until the 14th century. The same flower appears on one side of older silver ingots from central Java; the other side is stamped with a flowing vase design, which is never found on coins. The observe of the sandalwood flower coins are stamped with the nagiri character ma (abbreviation of masa).

Unlike the gold coins, the silver coins changed rapidly. In only one century, the character ma degenerated very quickly, perhaps because it is different with the Javanese Kawi letter for ma. The shape also changed; in the early 10th-century, the shape of one masa changed from a thick and flat coin, to a thin and cup-shaped coin. The silver coins were presumably served as small change. The silver coins were probably created by smiths in the market for use in market transactions.

In Java, beginning at the end of the 10th-century and onwards, more and more Chinese copper coins were imported in greater quantities, as well as Chinese cash and local copies, known as pisis. These coins began to displace the silver alloy coins as small denomination currency. By the mid-14th century, there were so many pisis in circulation, that the Javanese court recognized them as official currency for tax purposes.

Sumatran coins

In Sumatra, coins were first minted in the 11th-century. Similar sandalwood flower coins like those in Java were discovered in Sumatra, but more of these were made of gold, electrum, and silver alloy. Several 11th-century sites in Sumatra including Barus, Bengkulu, and Muara Jambi were abundant of gold coins, while silver is rare. Similar coins were found also in South Thailand. The Sumatran silver alloy examples are very well made compared with the Javanese silver coins.

Curiously, no coins have been found at Palembang, said to be the center of the Sriwijayan economy. This suggests that coins may have had a limited role in the early Sriwijayan economy. International trade might have been conducted either through the mechanism known as tributary trade or in other form known as administered trade. In administered trade system, equivalencies were established between commodities through diplomatic negotiations rather than bargaining.

Legacy

The gold piloncitos of the Philippines are a late offshoot of the Indonesian gold coinage, while the bean-like silver "namo" series, of the Malay isthmus was presumably an offshoot of the silver and may have evolved into the bullet (Pod-Duang) coinage of Sukhothai in Thailand.

See also

• Piloncito

Cited works

• Christie, Jan (1996). "The Early Indonesian Economy". Dalam Miksic, John. Ancient History. Singapore: Didier Millet. ISBN 9813018267. 

Pasak pondasi Hurri

Hurrian foundation pegs
The Louvre lion and accompanying stone tablet
Bahan baku	Copper, limestone
Ukuran	Louvre lion: 122 cm × 85 cm (48 in × 33 in) Limestone tablet: 10 cm × 9 cm (3,9 in × 3,5 in) Met lion: 117 cm × 79 cm (46 in × 31 in)
Sistem penulisan	Cuneiform inscription in Hurrian
Dibuat	ca 2300–ca 2159 BCE
Periode	Akkadian/Hurrian
Ditemukan	Unknown
Tempat ditemukan	Temple of Nergal, Urkesh, Syria
Lokasi sekarang	Musée du Louvre, Paris Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Identifikasi	Louvre lion: AO 19938 Louvre tablet: AO 19937 Met lion: 48.180

The Hurrian foundation pegs, also known as the Urkish lions, are twin copper foundation pegs each in the shape of a lion that probably came from the ancient city of Urkesh (modern Tell Mozan) in Syria. The pegs were placed at the foundation of the temple of Nergal in the city of Urkesh as mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions on them. The inscription on the two pegs and the associated stone tablet is the oldest known text in the Hurrian language. One of the lions is now housed, along with its limestone tablet, in the Musée du Louvre in Paris. The second lion is on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Overview

The foundation pegs are dated to the Akkadian period ca 2300–ca 2159 BCE. They were placed in the foundation of the temple of Nergal, the god of the underworld, during its construction. The pegs were deposited to protect and preserve the temple and the Hurrian prince of Urkesh, Tish-atal, who dedicated it. The upper part of the figurines depict a snarling lion with the forelegs stretched forward, while the lower part ends in a thick peg. The lion places its paws on a copper plaque with cuneiform inscriptions. The copper plate and the lion pegs were made separately and then attached together. The use of such lion figures for protection was commonplace in Ancient Mesopotamia, but the Urkish lions are unique in their use as foundation pegs.

Louvre lion and tablet

The Louvre lion measures 122 x 85 sentimeter (48 x 33 in) while the attached plaque is 85 sentimeter (33 in) wide. The inscription on the copper plaque is largely erased but the legible parts confirm that it is a copy of the cuneiform inscription found on the stone tablet. The white limestone tablet, which fits under the copper plate and measures 10 x 9 sentimeter (3,9 x 3,5 in), bears the following inscription:

"Tishatal, [Endan] king of Urkesh, has built a temple for the god Nergal. May the god Nubadag protect this temple. May Nubadag destroy whomsoever seeks to destroy [it]; may his god not listen to his prayers. May the Lady of Nagar, [the sun god] Shimiga, and the god of the storm [curse 10,000 times whomsoever might seek to destroy it]."

The inscription is the earliest known text written in the Hurrian language. The stone tablet was buried along with the metal peg as evidenced by the imprints of the copper oxide on the tablet, and the reverse imprints of the tablet in the oxide of the copper plate.

Metropolitan Museum lion

Foundation peg in the form of the forepart of a lion, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The Met lion measures 117 x 79 sentimeter (46 x 31 in) and while it was made from a different mold to that of the Louvre, it is considered stylistically the same. The copper tablet still has legible traces of the cuneiform inscriptions. The inscriptions spanned fourteen lines. Lines 1–12 were incised vertically between the edge of the plate and the lion's left foreleg. Lines 13 and 14 were incised horizontally between the two stretched forelegs of the lion. The legible traces seem to confirm that the inscribed text is also a copy of the full inscription found on the Louvre stone tablet.

Acquisition

Neither artefact has an archaeological record for its acquisition, and thus their original setting can not be confirmed. The Louvre lion and accompanying stone tablet were acquired in 1948 from a Parisian antiquities dealer. The Met lion was also purchased in 1948 from a New York antiquities dealer with funds from the Joseph Pulitzer Bequest.

See also

• Art of Mesopotamia
• Hurrian language

References

Bibliography

• Aruz, Joan; Wallenfels, Ronald (2003). Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. From the Mediterranean to the Indus. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588390431. 
• Muscarella, Oscar White (1988). Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870995255. 

Temuan Tell Asmar

Tell Asmar Hoard
Sumerian male worshiper, Alabaster with shell eyes. One of the twelve statues in the hoard.
Bahan baku	Gypsum, Limestone, Alabaster
Dibuat	Early Dynastic I-II, ca. 2900–2550 B.C.
Ditemukan	Tell Asmar, Iraq
Lokasi sekarang	Metropolitan Museum, New York, National Museum of Iraq, Oriental Institute, Chicago,

Gray limestone, Tell Asmar, Northern Palace, Akkadian (2350-2150 BC)

The twelve statues known collectively as the Tell Asmar Hoard (Early Dynastic I-II, ca. 2900–2550 BC) were unearthed in 1933 at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar) in the Diyala Region of Iraq. Despite subsequent finds at this site and others throughout the Greater Mesopotamian area they remain the definitive example of the abstract style of Early Dynastic temple sculpture (2900 BC–2350 BC).

Discovery

In the late 1920s antique dealers in Baghdad were acquiring large quantities of unusual, high quality artifacts from the desert east of the Diyala River, just north of its confluence with the Tigris. In 1929 the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago obtained a concession to excavate the area. James Henry Breasted (1865–1935), the founder of the institute, invited the Dutch Archeologist Henri Frankfort (1897–1954) to lead the expedition. Between 1930 and 1937 Frankfort and his team conducted extensive horizontal and vertical excavations on four mounds: Khafajah, Tell Asmar (ancient Eshnunna), Tell Agrab, and Ishchali. They uncovered temples, palaces, administrative buildings, and houses ranging in date from about 3100 to 1750 B.C. The hundreds of artifacts recovered from the stratified ruins of these ancient civic structures greatly enhanced understanding of Early Dynastic periodization.

Among the most well-known and best preserved objects are the twelve statues known collectively as the Tell Asmar Hoard. The hoard was found during the 1933-34 excavation season at Tell Asmar beneath the floor of a temple dedicated to the god Abu. The statues were neatly stacked in an oblong cavity beside an altar in the sanctuary. The careful placement suggests that they were buried intentionally. However, the reason for the burial and person(s) responsible for doing so remains unclear. Frankfort, who wrote extensively on the subject, suggests that a priest periodically buried old or badly damaged statues in order to make room in the temple for their replacements.^:16

The statues

The statues of the Tell Asmar Hoard range in height from 21 cm (8.2 in.) to 72 cm (28.3 in.). Of the twelve statues found ten are male and two are female. Eight of the figures are made from Gypsum, two from limestone, and one (the smallest) from alabaster.^:57–59 All the figures, with the exception of one that is kneeling, are rendered in a standing position. Thin circular bases were used as supports and large wedge shaped feet provided the larger statues with added durability. The males wear kilts with a patterned hem that covers the midsection and thighs. Their broad shoulders and thick, circular arms frame the bare chest, which is partially covered by a black, stylized beard. All the males, with the exception of one that is bald and clean shaven, have long hair rendered in two symmetrical halves that frames the smooth surfaces of the cheeks and forehead. The large eyes, which are undoubtedly the most striking stylistic feature that the statues share in common, are made from inlays of white shell and black limestone; one figure has pupils of lapis lazuli.^:57–59 These materials are secured to the head with bitumen, which was also used as a pigment to give the beard and hair its characteristic black color. Both the hair and the clothing, though abstracted, accurately reflect Sumerian styles of the Early Dynastic period.^:49–52

The hoard was discovered in a temple dedicated to Abu, the ancient Near Eastern god of fertility. Evidence from Early Dynastic ruins at Khafajah suggests that the statues may have been arranged along the walls of the sanctuary either on the floor or on a low mud brick bench before they were buried.^:10 Some of the statues are inscribed on the back and bottom with a name and personalized supplicatory message, while others simply state “one who offers prayers.” These inscriptions indicate that the statues functioned as a surrogate for male and female worshipers who wished to leave their prayers with the god. In the 3rd millennium B.C. the price for a votive statue likely depended on its size, and possibly what stone was used.

Frankfort argued that the largest figure in the hoard is not an effigy of a human worshiper, but rather a representation of the patron deity Abu. He calls attention to a number of features that set this particular statue apart from the rest including: the size, the unnaturally large eyes, especially the pupils, and the emblematic carving of an eagle with outstretched wings flanked by two recumbent mountain goats carved on the base.

References

• [1] Henri Frankfort, Thorkild Jacobsen, and Conrad Preusser, Tell Asmar and Khafaje: The First Season Work in Eshnunna 1930/31, Oriental Institute Publication 13, 1932
• [2] Henri Frankfort, Tell Asmar, Khafaje and Khorsabad: Second Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 16, 1933
• [3] Henri Frankfort, Iraq Excavations of the Oriental Institute 1932/33: Third Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 17, 1934
• [4] Henri Frankfort with a chapter by Thorkild Jacobsen, Oriental Institute Discoveries in Iraq, 1933/34: Fourth Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 19, 1935
• [5] Henri Frankfort, Progress of the Work of the Oriental Institute in Iraq, 1934/35: Fifth Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Publication 20, 1936
• [6] Henri Frankfort, Seton Lloyd, and Thorkild Jacobsen with a chapter by Günter Martiny, The Gimilsin Temple and the Palace of the Rulers at Tell Asmar, Oriental Institute Publication 43, 1940

Bibliography

• Evans, Jean. 2012. The Lives Of Sumerian Sculpture: An Archaeology of the Early Dynastic Temple. Chicago: University of Chicago.
• Evans, Jean. 2007. The Square Temple at Tell Asmar and the Construction of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia, ca. 2900-2350 B.C.E. American Journal of Archaeology 4: 599-632.
• Frankfort, Henri. 1939. Sculpture of the 3rd Millennium B.C. from Tell Asmar and Khafajah. The University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications 60. Chicago.
• 1943. More Sculpture from the Diyala Region. The University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications 60. Chicago.
• Jacobsen, Thorkild, "God or Worshipper", in Essays in Ancient Civilization Presented to Helene J. Kantor, edited by A. Leonard Jr. and B.B. Williams, p 125-30. Chicago. 1989.

Goa Stone and container, probably from Goa, India, late 17th–early 18th century.

A Goa stone is a man-made bezoar that is considered to have medicinal and talismanic properties. Goa stones were manufactured by Jesuits in the late seventeenth century in Goa, India, because naturally occurring bezoars were scarce. Their inventor was the Florentine lay brother Gaspar Antonio, and a Jesuit monopoly was confirmed by the Portuguese on March 6, 1691. They were created by combining organic and inorganic materials including hair, shells, tusks, resin, and crushed gems, then shaping the materials into a ball and gilting it. Like bezoar stones, Goa stones were thought to prevent disease and cure poisoning. They could be administered by shaving off small pieces into a drinkable beverage like water, tea, or wine.

Goa stones were kept in ornate, solid gold or gilded cases that were believed to enhance the medicinal properties of the stones. The cases usually featured a busy network of filagree, occasionally adorned with ornaments of animals, including monkeys, unicorns, dogs, and parrots.