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Revisi sejak 5 Desember 2013 13.28 oleh Glorious Engine (bicara | kontrib) (→‎Budaya populer)
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang pemain catur automaton. Untuk other uses, lihat Turk (disambiguasi).
Gambaran Turk oleh Karl Gottlieb von Windisch dalam buku 1784 Inanimate Reason
Rekonstruksi Turk

Turk yang juga dikenal sebagai Mesin Turki atau Pemain Catur Otomatis (Jerman: Schachtürke, "catur Turki" 'Hungaria: A Torok), merupakan mesin bermain catur palsu yang dibuat pada akhir abad ke-18. Dari tahun 1770 sehingga kemusnahannya dalam kebakaran pada tahun 1854, ia dipamerkan oleh ramai pemilik berbeda sebagai automaton, sungguhpun ia didedahkan pada awal 1820-an sebagai penipuan sulit.[1] Dibuat dan didedahkan pada tahun 1770 oleh Wolfgang von Kempelen (1734–1804) bagi mengkagumkan Ratu Maria Theresa dari Austria, mekanisme tersebut terlihat seolah-olah mampu bermain permainan bagus melawan lawan manusia, termasuk juga melakukan perjalanan kuda, teka-teki yang memerlukan pemain mengerakkan kuda bagi menduduki setiap petak papan catur hanya sekali.

The Turk sebenarnya ilusi mekanika yang membenarkan pakar catur manusia bersembunyi di dalam bagi mengendalikan mesin. Dengan pengendali yang mahir, the Turk memenangi kebanyakan permainan yang dimainkan sewaktu pertunjukannya di seluruh Eropah dan Amerika untuk tempoh selama 84 tahun, bermain dan mengalahkan ramai pencabar termasuk negarawan seperti Napoleon Bonaparte dan Benjamin Franklin. Pengendali dalam mekanisme sewaktu tur asal Kempelen kekal tidak diketahui. Apabila peranti tersebur dibeli pada tahun 1804 dan dipamerkan oleh Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, master catur yang mengendalikannya secara rahasia antara lain adalah Johann Baptist Allgaier, Boncourt, Aaron Alexandre, William Lewis, Jacques François Mouret, dan William Schlumberger.

Pembuatan

 
Potret diri arang bertanda tangan oleh Wolfgang von Kempelen, pembuat Turk

Kempelen mendapat ilham untuk membina The Turk berikutan dengan kehadirannya di istana Maria Theresa dari Austria di Istana Schönbrunn, di mana François Pelletier mempersembahkan aksi ilusi. Perbualan selepas pertunjukkan menyebabkan Kempelen berjanji untuk kembali ke Istana dengan ciptaan yang akan mengatasi ilusi tersebut.[2]

 
Ukiran tembaga the Turk, menunjukkan kabinet terbuka dan bahagian kerja. Perhatikan pembaris di bawah kanan imej, yang memudahkan bagi memastikan dimensi automatan. Kempelen merupakan pakar pengukir dan mungkin telah melakar imej ini sendiri.

Hasil cabaran ini adalah pemain catur automaton,[3][4] yang dikenali masa moden sebagai The Turk. Mesin itu terdiri dari patung sebsaiz manusia dengan kepala dan badan manusia, dengan janggut hitam dan mata kelabu,[5] dan berpakaian dalam jubah Turki dan turban – "kastum tradisi", menurut pemberita dan pengarang Tom Standage, "dari tukang sihir "The Orient"." Lengan kirinya memegang paip merokok Turki yang panjang ketiak berehat, sementara tangan kanannya diletakkan di atas kabinet besar[6] yang berukuran sekitar tiga setengah kaki (110 cm[7]) panjang, dua kaki (60 cm) lebar dan dua setengah kaki (75 cm) tinggi. Diletakkan di atas kabinet itu adalah papan catur, yang berukuran lapan belas inci persegi. Bahagian hadapan kabinet terdiri dari tiga pintu, satu bukaan, laci, yang boleh dibuka bagi mendedahkan set catur gading merah dan putih.[8]

 
Gambaran kerja model. Pelbagai bahagian diarah oleh manusia melalui tuil dan mesin dalaman. Ini merupakan ukuran herot berdasarkan pengiraan Racknitz, menunjukkan reka bentuk mustahil berbanding dimensi sebenar mesin.[9]

Bahagian dalam mesin amat rumit dan direka bagi mengelirukan sesiapa yang memantaunya.[2] Apabila dibuka di sebelah kiri, pintu hadapan kabinet menunjukkan sejumlah gear dan kog sama seperti dalam jam. Seksyen ini direka agar sekiranya pintu belakang kabinet dibuka pada masa yang sama seseorang dapat melihat menembusi mesin. Bahagian sebelahnya tidak mempunyai mesin; sebaliknya ie memiliki kusyen merah dan bahagian boleh dialih, termasuk struktur tembaga. Bahagian ini turut direka bagi memberikan pandangan terus yang jelas melalui mesin. Di bawah jubah model Turki, dua lagi pintu disembunyikan. Ini turut mendedahkan mesin gerakan jam dan memberikan pandangan tidak terhalang yang sama menembusi mesin. Reka bentuk membenarkan pengacara mesin membuka setiap pintu yang ada kepada orang awam, bagi mengekalkan ilusi.[10]

Neither the clockwork visible to the left side of the machine nor the drawer that housed the chess set extended fully to the rear of the cabinet; they instead went only one third of the way. A sliding seat was also installed, allowing the director inside to slide from place to place and thus evade observation as the presenter opened various doors. The sliding of the seat caused dummy machinery to slide into its place to further conceal the person inside the cabinet.[11]

The chessboard on the top of the cabinet was thin enough to allow for a magnetic linkage. Each piece in the set catur had a small, strong magnet attached to its base, and when they were placed on the board the pieces would attract a magnet attached to a string under their specific places on the board. This allowed the director inside the machine to see which pieces moved where on the papan catur.[12] The bottom of the chessboard had corresponding numbers, 1–64, allowing the director to see which places on the board were affected by a player's move.[13] The internal magnets were positioned in a way that outside magnetic forces did not influence them, and Kempelen would often allow a large magnet to sit at the side of the board in an attempt to show that the machine was not influenced by magnetism.[14]

As a further means of misdirection, the Turk came with a small wooden coffin-like box that the presenter would place on the top of the cabinet.[2] While Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, a later owner of the machine, did not use the box,[15] Kempelen often peered into the box during play, suggesting that the box controlled some aspect of the machine.[2] The box was believed by some to mempunyai kekuatan supernatural, with Karl Gottlieb von Windisch writing in his 1784 book Inanimate Reason that "[o]ne old lady, in particular, who had not forgotten the tales she had been told in her youth … went and hid herself in a window seat, as distant as she could from the evil spirit, which she firmly believed possessed the machine."[4]

 
A cross-section of the Turk from Racknitz, showing how he thought the director sat inside as he played his opponent. Racknitz was wrong both about the position of the director and the dimensions of the automaton.[9]

The interior also contained a papan catur pegboard connected to a pantograph-style series of levers that controlled the model's left arm. The metal pointer on the pantograph moved over the interior papan catur, and would simultaneously move the arm of the Turk over the papan catur on the cabinet. The range of motion allowed the director to move the Turk's arm up and down, and turning the lever would open and close the Turk's hand, allowing it to grasp the pieces on the board. All of this was made visible to the director by using a simple candle, which had a ventilation system through the model.[16] Other parts of the machinery allowed for a clockwork-type sound to be played when the Turk made a move, further adding to the machinery illusion, and for the Turk to make various facial expressions.[17] A voice box was added following the Turk's acquisition by Mälzel, allowing the machine to mengatakan "Échec!" (bahasa Perancis untuk "skak") during matches.[3]

An operator inside the machine also had tools to assist in communicating with the presenter outside. Two brass discs equipped with numbers were positioned opposite each other on the inside and outside of the cabinet. A rod could rotate the discs to the desired number, which acted as a code between the two.[18]

Pameran

The Turk made its debut in 1770 di Istana Schönbrunn, about enam bulan setelah Pelletier's act. Kempelen addressed the court, presenting what he had built, and began the demonstration of the machine and its parts. With every showing of the Turk, Kempelen began by opening the doors and drawers of the cabinet, allowing members of the audience to inspect the machine. Following this display, Kempelen would announce that the machine was ready for a challenger.[19]

Kempelen would inform the player that the Turk would use the white pieces dan have the first move. Between moves the Turk kept its left arm on the cushion. The Turk could nod twice if it threatened its opponent's ratu, dan three times upon placing the raja in skak. If an opponent made an illegal move, the Turk would shake its head, move the piece back and make its own move, thus forcing a forfeit of its opponent's move.[20] Louis Dutens, seorang penjelajah yang observed a showing of the Turk, attempted to trick the machine "by giving the Ratu the move of a Knight, but my mechanic opponent was not to be so imposed upon; he took up my Queen and replaced her in the square from which I had moved her."[21] Kempelen made it a point to traverse the room during the match, and invited observers to bring magnet, irons, and lodestones to the cabinet to test whether the machine was run by a form of magnetism or weights. Orang pertama yang bermain dengan Turk adalah Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, seorang abdi dalem Austria di istana. Along with other challengers that day, he was quickly defeated, with observers of the match stating that the machine played aggressively, and typically beat its opponents within tiga menit.[22]

 
Perjalanan kuda yang dituntaskan oleh Turk. The closed loop that is formed allows the tour to be completed from any starting point on the board.[23]

Another part of the machine's exhibition was the completion of the perjalanan kuda, a famed chess puzzle. The puzzle requires the player to move a knight around a papan catur, touching each square once along the way. While most experienced pemain catur of the time still struggled with the puzzle, the Turk was capable of completing the tour without any difficulty from any starting point via a pegboard used by the director with a mapping of the puzzle laid out.[23]

Turk juga had the ability to converse with spectators using a letter board. The director, whose identity during the period when Kempelen presented the machine di Istana Schönbrunn is unknown,[24] was able to do this in Inggris, Perancis, dan Jerman. Carl Friedrich Hindenburg, sebuah universitas matematika, kept a record of the conversations during the Turk's time di Leipzig dan mempublikasikannya pada tahun 1789 dengan judul Über den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempelen und dessen Nachbildung (atau On the Pemain Catur Tuan von Kempelen dan Replikanya). Topics of questions put to dan dijawab oleh Turk included its age, marital status, dan its secret workings.[25]

Tur Eropa

Following word of its debut, interest in the machine grew across Eropa. Kempelen, however, was more interested in his other projects and avoided exhibiting the Turk, often lying about the machine's repair status to prospective challengers. Von Windisch wrote at one point that Kempelen "refused the entreaties of his friends, and a crowd of curious persons from all countries, the satisfaction of seeing this far-famed machine."[26] In the decade following its debut di Istana Schönbrunn the Turk only played one opponent, Sir Robert Murray Keith, a Scottish noble, and Kempelen went as far as dismantling the Turk entirely following the match.[27] Kempelen was quoted as referring to the invention as a "mere bagatelle", as he was not pleased with its popularity and would rather continue work on steam engines and machines that replicated human speech.

Pada tahun 1781, Kempelen was ordered by Kaisar Joseph II to reconstruct the Turk dan mengirimkannya ke Vienna untuk kunjungan kenegaraan dari Adipati Agung Paul dari Rusia dan istrinya. The appearance was so successful that Adipati Agung Paul suggested a tour of Eropa untuk the Turk, a request to which Kempelen reluctantly agreed.[28]

 
François-André Danican Philidor menang dalam permainannya melawan Turk di Paris pada tahun 1793.

The Turk began its tur Eropa pada tahun 1783, beginning with an appearance in Perancis pada bulan April. A stop at Versailles preceded an exhibition in Paris, where the Turk lost a match to Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne, the Duc de Bouillon. Upon arrival di Paris pada bulan Mei 1783 it was displayed to the public and played a variety of opponents, including seorang pengacara bernama Tuan Bernard yang was a peringkat kedua in chess ability.[29] Following the sessions at Versailles, demands increased for a match with François-André Danican Philidor, who was considered the pemain catur terbaik of his time.[30] Moving to the Café de la Régence, the machine played many of the most skilled players, often losing (e.g. melawan Bernard dan Verdoni),[31] until securing a match with Philidor at the Académie des Sciences. While Philidor won his match with the Turk, putra Philidor noted that his father called it "his most fatiguing permainan catur ever!"[32] Akhir permainan Turk di Paris was melawan Benjamin Franklin, who was serving as duta besar Perancis untuk Amerika Serikat. Franklin reportedly enjoyed the game with the Turk and was interested in the machine for the rest of his life, keeping a copy of Philip Thicknesse's book The Speaking Figure and the Automaton Chess Player, Exposed and Detected di perpustakaan pribadinya.[33]

Mengikuti langkah turnya di Paris, Kempelen memindahkan Turk ke London, where it was exhibited daily for five shillings. Thicknesse, known in his time as a skeptic, sought out the Turk in an attempt to expose the inner workings of the machine.[34] While he respected Kempelen sebagai "a very ingenious man",[2] he asserted that the Turk was an elaborate hoax with a small child inside the machine, menggambarkan mesin ini sebagai "a complicated piece of clockwork ... which is nothing more, than one, of many other ingenious devices, to misguide and delude the observers."[35]

Setelah setahun di London, Kempelen dan Turk kemudian mengunjungi Leipzig, berhenti di berbagai kota Eropa di setiap perjalanan. From Leipzig, it went to Dresden, dimana Joseph Friedrich Freiherr von Racknitz viewed the Turk and published his findings in Über den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempelen, nebst einer Abbildung und Beschreibung seiner Sprachmachine, along with illustrations showing his beliefs about how the machine operated. It then moved to Amsterdam, after which Kempelen is said to have accepted an invitation to Istana Sanssouci di Potsdam of Frederick Agung, Raja Prussia. The story goes that Frederick enjoyed the Turk so much that he paid a large sum of money to Kempelen in exchange for the Turk's secrets. Frederick never gave the secret away, but was reportedly disappointed to learn how the machine worked.[36] (This story is almost certainly apocryphal; there is no evidence of the Turk's encounter bersama Frederick, the first mention of which comes in the awal abad ke-19, by which time the Turk was juga incorrectly said to dapat bermain melawan George III dari Inggris.[37]) It seems most likely that the machine stayed dormant at Istana Schönbrunn for over dua dekade, although Kempelen attempted tidak sukses untuk menjualnya hingga akhir hidupnya. Kempelen wafat pada usia 70 pada tanggal 26 Maret 1804.[38]

Mälzel dan mesin

Pasca kematian Kempelen, the Turk remained un-exhibited until some time sebelum 1804 when putra Kempelen decided to sell it to Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, seorang musisi Bavaria with an interest in various machines and devices. Mälzel, whose successes included patenting a form of metronome, had tried to purchase the Turk once before, prior to Kempelen's death. The original attempt had failed, owing to Kempelen's asking price of 20,000 francs; Kempelen's son sold the machine to Mälzel for half this sum.[39]

Upon acquiring the Turk, Mälzel had to learn its secrets and make some repairs to get it back in working order. His stated goal was to make explaining the Turk a greater challenge. While the completion of this goal took ten years, the Turk still made appearances, most notably dengan Napoleon Bonaparte.[40]

Pada tahun 1809, Napoleon I dari Perancis mengunjungi di Istana Schönbrunn untuk bermain dengan Turk. According to an eyewitness report, Mälzel took responsibility for the construction of the machine while preparing the game, and the Turk (Johann Baptist Allgaier) saluted Napoleon prior to the start of the match. The details of the match have been published over the years in numerous accounts, many of them contradictory.[41] According to Bradley Ewart, it is believed that the Turk sat at its cabinet, and Napoleon sat at a separate chess table. Napoleon's table was in a roped-off area and he was not allowed to cross into the Turk's area, with Mälzel crossing back and forth to make each player's move and allowing a clear view for the spectators. In a surprise move, Napoleon took the first turn instead of allowing the Turk to make the first move, as was usual; but Mälzel allowed the game to continue. Shortly thereafter, Napoleon attempted an ilegal move. Upon noticing the move, the Turk returned the piece to its original spot and continued the game. Napoleon attempted the ilegal move a second time, and the Turk responded by removing the piece from the board entirely and taking its turn. Napoleon then attempted the move a third time, the Turk responding with a sweep of its arm, knocking all the pieces off the board. Napoleon was reportedly amused, and then played a real game with the machine, completing nineteen moves before tipping over rajanya in surrender.[42] Alternate versions of the story include Napoleon being unhappy about losing to the machine, playing the machine at a later time, playing one match with a magnet on the board, and playing a match with a shawl around the head and body of the Turk in an attempt to obscure its vision.[43]

Pada tahun 1811, Mälzel membawa Turk ke Milan untuk penampilannya bersama Eugène de Beauharnais, Pangeran Venice dan Viceroy Italia. Beauharnais menikmati the machine so much that he offered to purchase it from Mälzel. After some serious bargaining, Beauharnais acquired the Turk for 30,000 francs – three times what Mälzel had paid – dan kept it untuk empat tahun. Pada tahun 1815, Mälzel returned to Beauharnais in Munich and asked to buy the Turk back. Two versions of how much he had to pay exist, eventually working out an agreement.[44] One version appeared in the France Letter Palamede. [Note 1] The complete story does not make a lot of sense since Mälzel visited Paris again, and he also could import his "Conflagration of Moscow".[Note 2]

 
An advertisement for Mälzel's appearance with the Turk di London[45]

Mengikuti the repurchase, Mälzel brought the Turk kembali ke Paris where he made acquaintances of many of the leading chess players at Café de la Régence. Mälzel tinggal di Perancis with the machine until 1818, dimana ia pindah ke London dan held a number of performances with the Turk dan many of his other machines. Di London, Mälzel dan his act received a large amount of press, and he continued improving the machine,[46] ultimately installing a voice box so the machine could say "Échec!" when placing a player in skak.[47]

Pada tahun 1819, Mälzel took the Turk on a tur Britania Raya. There were several new developments in the act, such as allowing the opponent the first move dan eliminating the king's bishop's pawn from the Turk's pieces. This pawn handicap created further interest in the Turk, and spawned a book by W. J. Hunneman chronicling the matches played with this handicap.[48] Despite the handicap, the Turk (operated by Mouret at the time[49]) ended up with forty-five victories, three losses, and two stalemates.[50]

Mälzel di Amerika

The appearances of the Turk were profitable for Mälzel, and he continued by taking it and his other machines to the Amerika Serikat. Pada tahun 1826, he opened an exhibition in New York City that slowly grew in popularity, giving rise to many newspaper stories and anonymous threats of exposure of the secret. Mälzel's problem was finding a proper director for the machine,[51] having trained an unknown woman di Perancis before coming to the Amerika Serikat. He ended up recalling seorang mantan direktur, William Schlumberger, from Elsass in Eropa to come to Amerika dan work for him again once Mälzel was able to provide the money for Schlumberger's transport.

Upon Schlumberger's arrival, the Turk debuted di Boston, Mälzel spinning a story that the New York chess players could not handle full games and that the Boston players were much better opponents.[52] This was a success for many weeks, dan melakukan tur di Philadelphia untuk tiga bulan. Setelah di Philadelphia, Turk berpindah ke Baltimore, dimana ia bermain untuk beberapa bulan, including losing a match melawan Charles Carroll, seorang penanda tangan Deklarasi Kemerdekaan. The exhibition in Baltimore brought news that two brothers had constructed their own machine, the Walker Chess-player. Mälzel viewed the competing machine and attempted to buy it, but the offer was declined and the duplicate machine toured for a number of years, never receiving the fame that Mälzel's machine did and eventually falling into obscurity.[53]

Mälzel continued with exhibitions around the Amerika Serikat until 1828, when he took some time off dan mengunjungi Eropa, returning in 1829. Throughout the 1830an, he continued to tour the Amerika Seikat, exhibiting the machine as far west as the Sungai Mississippi dan mengunjungi Kanada. Di Richmond, Virginia, Turk diobservasi oleh Edgar Allan Poe, who was writing for the Southern Literary Messenger. Esay Poe berjudul "Maelzel's Chess Player" dipublikasi pada bulan April 1836 dan is the most famous essay on the Turk, even though many of Poe's hypotheses were incorrect (such as that a chess-playing machine must always win).[54]

Mälzel eventually took the Turk melakukan tur keduanya di Havana, Kuba. Di Kuba, Schlumberger wafat akibat demam kuning, leaving Mälzel without a director for his machine. Dejected, Mälzel wafat di atas laut pada tahun 1838 di usia 66 tahun during his return trip, leaving his machinery with kapten kapal.[55][56]

Tahun-tahun terakhir dan beyond

Upon the return of the ship on which Mälzel wafat, his various machines, including the Turk, fell into the hands of a teman Mälzel, pengusaha John Ohl. He attempted to auction off the Turk, but owing to low bidding ultimately bought it himself for $400.[57] Only when Dr. John Kearsley Mitchell dari Philadelphia, Edgar Allan Poe's dokter pribadi and an admirer of the Turk, approached Ohl did the Turk berpindah tangan lagi.[2] Mitchell formed a restoration club and went about the business of repairing the Turk for public appearances, completing the restoration in 1840.[58]

As interest in the Turk outgrew its location, Mitchell and his club chose to donate the machine to the Museum China Charles Willson Peale. While the Turk still occasionally gave performances, it was eventually relegated to the corners of the museum and forgotten about until 5 Juli 1854, when a fire that started at the National Theater in Philadelphia reached the Museum and destroyed the Turk.[59] Mitchell believed he had heard "through the struggling flames ... the last words of our departed friend, the sternly whispered, oft repeated syllables, 'echec! echec!!'[60]

 
Truk hasil rekonstruksi John Gaughan

John Gaughan, seorang ahli manufaktur Amerika of equipment for magicians based di Los Angeles, spent $US120,000 building his own version of Kempelen's machine over a five-year periode dari tahun 1984.[61] The machine memakai papan catur original, which was stored separately from the original Turk and was not destroyed in the fire. The first public display of Gaughan's Turk was pada bulan November 1989 di sebuah sejarah konferensi sulap. The machine was presented much as Kempelen presented the original, except that the opponent was replaced by a computer running a program catur.[62]

Pembongkaran Rahasia

While many books and articles were written during the Turk's life about how it worked, most were inaccurate, drawing incorrect inferences from external observation.

It was not until Dr. Silas Mitchell's series of articles for The Chess Monthly that the secret was fully revealed. Mitchell, son of the final private owner of the Turk, John Kearsley Mitchell,[63] wrote that "no secret was ever kept as the Turk's has been. Guessed at, in part, many times, no one of the several explanations ... ever solved this amusing puzzle." As the Turk was lost to fire at the time of publikasi ini, Silas Mitchell felt that there were "no longer any reasons for concealing from the amateurs of chess, the solution to this ancient enigma."[60]

The most important sejarah biografi mengenai pemain catur dan Mälzel was presented in Containing the Proceedings of that celebrated Assemblage, held in New York, in the Year 1857, dipublikasikan oleh Daniel Willard Fiske.[64]

Pada tahun 1859, sebuah surat dipublikasikan di Philadelphia Sunday Dispatch oleh William F. Kummer, seorang yang bekerja sebagai seorang direktur dibawah John Mitchell, revealed another piece of the secret: a candle inside the cabinet. A series of tubes led from the lamp to the turban of the Turk for ventilation. The smoke rising from the turban would be disguised by the smoke coming from the other candelabra in the area where the game was played.[65]

Later in 1859, an uncredited article appeared in Littell's Living Age that purported to be the story of the Turk dari pesulap Perancis Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin. This was rife with errors ranging from dates of events to a story of a Polish officer whose legs were amputated, but ended up being rescued by Kempelen and smuggled back to Russia inside the machine.[66]

A new article about the Turk did not turn up until 1899, when The American Chess Magazine published an account of the Turk's match with Napoleon Bonaparte. The story was basically a review of previous accounts, and a substantive published account would not appear until 1947, when Chess Review published articles by Kenneth Harkness and Jack Straley Battell that amounted to a comprehensive history and description of the Turk, complete with new diagrams that synthesized information from previous publikasi. Artikel lain ditulis pada tahun 1960 di American Heritage oleh Ernest Wittenberg provided new diagrams describing how the director sat inside the cabinet.[67]

In Henry A. Davidson's 1945 publication A Short History of Chess, significant weight is given to Poe's essay which erroneously suggested that the player sat inside the Turk figure, rather than on a moving seat inside the cabinet. A similar error would occur in Alex G. Bell's 1978 book, The Machine Plays Chess, which falsely asserted that "the operator was a trained boy (or very small adult) who followed the directions of the chess player who was hidden elsewhere on stage or in the theater…"[68]

More books were published about the Turk toward the akhir abad ke-20. Along with Bell's book, Charles Michael Carroll's The Great Chess Automaton (1975) focused more on the studies of the Turk. Bradley Ewart's Chess: Man vs. Machine (1980) discussed the Turk as well as other purported chess-playing automatons.[69]

It was not until the creation of Deep Blue, IBM's attempt at a computer that could challenge the world's best players, that interest increased again, and two more books were published: Gerald M. Levitt's The Turk, Chess Automaton (2000), and Tom Standage's The Turk: The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth-Century Chess-Playing Machine, dipublikasikan pada tahun 2002.[70] The Turk was digunakan sebagai personifikasi Deep Blue pada tahun 2003 yang didokumentasi pada Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine.[71]

Budaya populer

 
An advertisement for an exhibition of Ajeeb, including an illustration of its appearance. Ajeeb was an imitation of the Turk.

Owing to the Turk's popularity and mystery, its construction inspired a number of inventions and imitations,[2] including Ajeeb, atau "The Egyptian", sebuah Amerika imitation built oleh Charles Hopper that Presiden Grover Cleveland bermain pada tahun 1885, dan Mephisto, the self-described "most famous" machine, of which little is known.[72] Imitasi pertama yang buatan Mälzel dibuat di Baltimore. Dibuat oleh Brothers Walker, the "American Chess Player" made its debut pada bulan Mei 1827 di New York.[73] El Ajedrecista was built pada tahun 1912 oleh Leonardo Torres y Quevedo sebagai pemain catur otomatis dan made its public debut during the Paris World Fair of 1914. Capable of playing rook dan raja melawan raja endgames using electromagnets, it was the first true chess-playing automaton, and a precursor of sorts to Deep Blue.[74]

The Turk was visited di London by Rev. Edmund Cartwright pada tahun 1784. He was so intrigued by the Turk that he would later question whether "it is more difficult to construct a machine that shall weave than one which shall make all the variety of moves required in that complicated game." Cartwright would patent the prototype for a power loom within the year.[75] Sir Charles Wheatstone, seorang penemu, saw a later appearance of the Turk while it was owned by Mälzel. He also saw some of Mälzel's speaking machines, and Mälzel later presented a demonstration of speaking machines to a researcher dan putra remajanya. Alexander Graham Bell obtained a copy of a book by Kempelen on speaking machines setelah menjadi inspirasi by seeing a similar machine built by Wheatstone; Bell went on to file the first successful patent for the telephone.[2]

Sebuah mainan, The Automaton Chess Player, diluncurkan di New York City pada tahun 1845. The advertising, as well as an article that appeared in The Illustrated London News, claimed that the play featured Kempelen's Turk, but it was in fact a copy of the Turk dibuat oleh J. Walker, who had earlier presented pemain Catur Berjalan.[76]

Film bisu buatan Raymond Bernard berjudul Le joueur d'échecs (The Chess Player, Perancis 1927) weaves elements from the real story of the Turk into an adventure tale set in the aftermath of the first of the Pemisahan Polandia pada tahun 1772. The film's "Baron von Kempelen" helps a dashing nasionalis pemuda Polandia on the run from the occupying Russians, who also happens to be an expert pemain catur, by hiding him inside a pemain catur otomatis called the Turk, closely based on the real Kempelen model. Just as they are about to escape over the border, the Baron is summoned to Saint Petersburg to present the Turk to the empress Yekaterina II. In an echo of insiden Napoleon, Catherine attempts to cheat the Turk, who wipes all the pieces from the board in response.[77] An advanced hardware- and software-based AI chess-playing platform bearing the contraption's name is a key plot element in drama televisi 2008 Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles, first referenced in the episode ketiga.

Turk juga menginspirasi karya literatur fiksi. Pada tahun 1849, just several years before the Turk was destroyed, Edgar Allan Poe published a tale "Von Kempelen and His Discovery".[78] Ambrose Bierce's short story "Moxon's Master", dipublikasi pada tahun 1909, is a morbid tale about a chess-playing automaton that resembles the Turk. Pada tahun 1938, John Dickson Carr mempublikasikan The Crooked Hinge,[79] a misteri ruang terkunci in his line of novel detektif Dr. Gideon Fell. Among the puzzles presented included an automaton that operates in a way that is unexplainable to the characters.[80] sebuah cerita pendek fiksi ilmiah 1977 buatan Gene Wolfe, "The Marvellous Brass Chessplaying Automaton", also features a device very similar to the Turk.[81] F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre's 2007 story "The Clockwork Horror" reconstructs Edgar Allan Poe's original encounter dengan pemain catur Mälzel, and also establishes (from contemporary advertisements in a surat kabar Richmond) precisely when and where this encounter took place.[82]

Walter Benjamin alludes to the Mechanical Turk in the tesis pertama of his Theses on the Philosophy of History (Über den Begriff der Geschichte), ditulis pada tahun 1940.[83]

Pada tahun 2005, Amazon.com meluncurkan Amazon Mechanical Turk. The web-based aplikasi perangkat lunak coordinates programming tasks with human intelligence, inspired in part by the way Kempelen's Turk operated.[84] The program is designed to have humans perform tasks, such as color comparisons, that computers struggle with.[85]

Pada tahun 2013, the Doctor Who episode Nightmare in Silver featured a version of Turk in the far future, dengan sebuah Cyberman sebagai pemain.

Catatan kaki

  1. ^ "The writer in the Palamede makes the result a kind of partnership in an exhibitiontour – the title of the Automaton was to remain in the princely owner, and Maelzel was to pay the interest of the original cost as his partner's fair proportion of the profits. But another account – current, Aku percaya, di Munich – makes the transaction to have been a sale: Maelzel bought back the Automaton for the same thirty thousand francs, and was to pay for it out of the profits of his exhibitions – " Provided, nevertheless," that Maelzel was not to leave the Continent to give such exhibitions. The latter account I believe to be the more correct one." The Book of the first American Chess Congress, page 427,Online
  2. ^ "Mr. Maelzel, who had already experienced some regret at parting with his protegi, requested the favour to be again reinstated in the charge, promising to pay Eugene (he interest of the thirty thousand francs Mr. M. hod pocketed. This proposition was graciously conceded by the gallant Beauharnois, and Maelzel thus had the satisfaction of finding he had made a tolerably good bargain, getting literally the money for nothing at all! Leaving Bavaria with the Automaton, Maelzel was once more en ramie, as travelling showman of the wooden genius. Other automata were adopted into the family, and a handsome income was realised by their ingenious proprietor. Himself an inferior player, he called the assistance of first-rale talent to the field as his ally. On limits compel us to skip over some interval of time here, during which M. Boncourt (mereka percaya) was chef Slaelzel di Paris, dimana the machine was received with all its former favour; and we take up the subject pada tahun 1819, when Maelzel again appeared with the Chess Automaton in London." Fraser's magazine for town and country, Band 19, James Fraser, 1839 Online

Catatan

  1. ^ See SCHAFFER, Simon (1999), "Enlightened Automata", in Clark et al. (Eds), The Sciences in Enlightened Europe, Chicago and London, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 126-165.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Ricky Jay, "The Automaton Chess Player, the Invisible Girl, and the Telephone," Jay's Journal of Anomalies, vol. 4 no. 4, 2000.
  3. ^ a b Edgar Allan Poe, "Maelzel's Chess-Player," Southern Literary Journal, April 1836; available on the internet via the Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, Maryland, URL accessed 19 Desember 2006.
  4. ^ a b Karl Gottlieb von Windisch, Briefe über den Schachspieler von Kempelen nebst drey Kupferstichen die diese berühmte Maschine vorstellen, or Inanimate Reason; or, A Circumstantial Account of that Astonishing Piece of Mechanism, M. de Kempelen's Chess-Player, Now Exhibiting at No. 9 Savile-Row, Burlington Gardens (London, 1784); translation taken from Levitt.
  5. ^ Stephen Patrick Rice, Minding the Machine: Languages of Class in Early Industrial America (Berkeley, University of California Press, 2004), 12.
  6. ^ Tom Standage, The Turk: The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth-Century Chess-Playing Machine (New York: Walker, 2002), 22–23.
  7. ^ The dimensions from Jay's Journal, which expresses them to the nearest half-foot. Metric versions thus can only be precise to the nearest multiple of fifteen centimetres. If we conventionally round to the closest multiple of five centimetres, the cabinet was very roughly 110×60×75 cm and the chessboard very roughly 50 cm square.
  8. ^ Standage, 24.
  9. ^ a b Standage, 88
  10. ^ Standage, 24–27.
  11. ^ Standage, 195–199.
  12. ^ Standage, 202.
  13. ^ Fraser's Magazine for Town and Country. James Fraser. 1839. 
  14. ^ Thomas Leroy Hankins and Robert J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), 191.
  15. ^ Gerald M. Levitt, The Turk, Chess Automaton (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000), 40.
  16. ^ Levitt, 147–150.
  17. ^ Sound: Standage, 27–9. Facial expressions: George Atkinson, Chess and Machine Intuition (Exeter: Intellect, 1998), 15–16.
  18. ^ Standage, 203–204.
  19. ^ Standage, 24–17.
  20. ^ Levitt, 17.
  21. ^ Louis Dutens, from a letter published in Le Mercure du France (Paris, circa October 1770; later translated into English and reprinted in Gentleman's Magazine (London); translation taken from Levitt.
  22. ^ Standage, 30.
  23. ^ a b Standage, 30–31.
  24. ^ Standage, 204–205
  25. ^ Levitt, 33–34.
  26. ^ Standage, 37.
  27. ^ Standage, 36–38.
  28. ^ Standage, 40–42.
  29. ^ Standage, 44–45.
  30. ^ Standage, 49.
  31. ^ The Oxford Companion to Chess – David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld (1992) p.431
  32. ^ Levitt, 26.
  33. ^ Levitt, 27–29.
  34. ^ Levitt, 30–31.
  35. ^ Philip Thicknesse, The Speaking Figure and the Automaton Chess Player, Exposed and Detected (London, 1794), quoted in Levitt's The Turk, Chess Automaton.
  36. ^ Levitt, 33–37.
  37. ^ Standage, 90-91
  38. ^ Levitt, 37–38.
  39. ^ Levitt, 38–39.
  40. ^ Levitt, 30.
  41. ^ Standage, 105–106.
  42. ^ Bradley Ewart, Chess: Man vs. Machine (London: Tantivy, 1980).
  43. ^ Levitt, 39–42.
  44. ^ Levitt, 42–23
  45. ^ Levitt, 45.
  46. ^ Levitt, 45–48.
  47. ^ Standage, 125.
  48. ^ W. J. Hunneman, Chess. A Selection of Fifty Games, from Those Played by the Pemain Catur Otomatis, During Its Exhibition in London, in 1820 (1820); quotation taken from Levitt.
  49. ^ The Oxford Companion to Chess – David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld (1992) p. 265
  50. ^ Levitt, 49.
  51. ^ Levitt, 68–69.
  52. ^ In Boston in 1826 the automaton chess player appeared at Julien Hall. (cf. Boston Commercial Gazette, Sept. 14, 1826)
  53. ^ Levitt, 71–83.
  54. ^ Levitt, 83–86.
  55. ^ Levitt, 87–91.
  56. ^ Daniel Willard Fiske (1859). The Book of the first American Chess Congress: Containing the Proceedings of that celebrated Assemblage, held in New York, in the Year 1857. Rudd & Carleton. hlm. 420-483. 
  57. ^ Levitt, 92–93.
  58. ^ Levitt, 94–95.
  59. ^ Levitt, 97.
  60. ^ a b Silas Weir Mitchell, "The Last of a Veteran Chess Player," The Chess Monthly, January 1857; reprinted in Levitt's The Turk, Chess Automaton.
  61. ^ Levitt, 243.
  62. ^ Standage, 216–217.
  63. ^ Levitt, 236.
  64. ^ Daniel Willard Fiske (1859). The Book of the first American Chess Congress: Containing the Proceedings of that celebrated Assemblage, held in New York, in the Year 1857. Rudd & Carleton. hlm. 420-483. 
  65. ^ Levitt, 150.
  66. ^ Levitt, 151.
  67. ^ Levitt, 151–152.
  68. ^ Levitt, 153.
  69. ^ Levitt, 154–155.
  70. ^ Deep Blue: Feng-hsiung Hsu, Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002). Levitt's book: The Turk, Chess Automaton product listing. URL accessed 1 January 2007. Standage's book: The Turk: The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth-Century Chess-Playing Machine product listing. URL accessed 1 January 2007.
  71. ^ Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine, directed by Vikram Jayanti, 2003.
  72. ^ Imitations: Jay, "The Automaton Chess Player, the Invisible Girl, and the Telephone. Ajeeb or the Egyptian: Ramón Jiménez, "The Rook Endgame Machine of Torres y Quevedo." ChessBase, 20 July 2004. URL accessed 15 January 2006. Played by Grover Cleveland: International Chess Magazine September 1885. Mephisto: Levitt, 154.
  73. ^ Daniel Willard Fiske (1859). The Book of the first American Chess Congress: Containing the Proceedings of that celebrated Assemblage, held in New York, in the Year 1857. Rudd & Carleton. hlm. 456. 
  74. ^ Ramón Jiménez, "The Rook Endgame Machine of Torres y Quevedo."
  75. ^ Levitt, 31–32.
  76. ^ Levitt, 241–242.
  77. ^ Maureen Furniss, "Le Joueur d'Echecs/The Chess Player (review)," The Moving Image 4, no. 1, Spring 2004, pp. 149–151.
  78. ^ Sova, Dawn B. (2001). Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York: Checkmark Books. ISBN 0-8160-4161-X. , the tale is available at Wikisource
  79. ^ Time, "Mystery of the Month." 31 October 1938, URL accessed 14 February 2007.
  80. ^ S. T. Joshi, John Dickson Carr: A Critical Study. Bowling Green Press, 1990.
  81. ^ Terry Carr (Editor), Universe 7. Doubleday, 1977.
  82. ^ James Robert Smith & Stephen Mark Rainey (editors), Evermore, Arkham House, 2007; reprinted in Stephen Jones (editor), The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror, Carroll & Graf, 2007.
  83. ^ Walter Benjamin (1968). Illuminations. Schocken. hlm. 253. ISBN 978-0-8052-0241-0. 
  84. ^ Amazon.com: "FAQ: What is Amazon Mechanical Turk? URL accessed 15 January 2006.
  85. ^ Katharine Mieszkowski, "'I make $1.45 a week and I love it'," Salon.com, 24 July 2006. URL accessed 15 January 2007.

Referensi

  • George W. Atkinson (1998-01-01). Chess and Machine Intuition. Intellect L & D E F A E. ISBN 978-1-871516-44-9. 
  • Bradley Ewart (1980). Chess, man vs. machine. A S Barnes & Co. ISBN 0-498-02167-X. 
  • Professor Thomas L Hankins (1995). Instruments and the Imagination. ISBN 978-0-691-02997-9. 
  • Feng-hsiung Hsu (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8. 
  • Gerald M. Levitt (2000). The Turk, chess automaton. McFarland & Co Inc Pub. ISBN 0-7864-0778-6. 
  • Robert Löhr (2007-07-05). The chess machine. Penguin Group USA. ISBN 1-59420-126-9. 
  • Stephen Patrick Rice (2004). Minding the Machine: Languages of Class in Early Industrial America. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22781-1. 
  • Tom Standage (2002-04-01). The Turk: The Life and Times of the Famous 19th Century Chess-Playing Machine. Walker. ISBN 978-0-8027-1391-9. 
  • Gaby Wood (2002). Living Dolls: A Magical History of the Quest for Mechanical Life. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-17879-7. 

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