Empat Kebenaran Mulia
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Dalam Buddhisme, Empat Kebenaran Mulia (Pali: cattāri ariyasaccāni; Sanskerta: catvaryāryasatyāni) adalah "kebenaran para orang mulia", kebenaran atau realitas bagi "mereka yang layak secara spiritual".[web 1][1] Empat kebenaran tersebut adalah:[2]
- dukkha ("penderitaan")[note 1][3][4][5] adalah karakteristik bawaan dari keberadaan samsara;[web 2][6][7] bahwa tidak ada fenomena berkondisi yang kekal; fenomena berkondisi itu menyakitkan.
- samudaya ("munculnya atau asal penderitaan"): bersama dukkha ada taṇhā ("nafsu"); kemelekatan (upādāna) atas keberadaan yang dukkha.[web 3][8][9][note 2][11]
- nirodha ("terhentinya penderitaan"): kemelekatan atas dukkha dapat dilenyapkan oleh pelepasan atas taṇhā;[11][12][13][14][15] keadaan yang pada akhirnya mengarah ke pencapaian Nirwana,[16] termasuk empat tingkat kemuliaan.
- nirodhagāminī paṭipadā atau magga ("jalan menuju terhentinya penderitaan") adalah jalan menuju lenyapnya taṇhā dan pembebasan dari dukkha (Nirwana); Jalan Mulia Berunsur Delapan.[17][18][19]
Empat kebenaran ini tumbuh menjadi sangat penting dalam tradisi Buddhisme Theravāda sekitar abad ke-5 Masehi,[20] yang menyatakan bahwa kebijaksanaan terhadap empat kebenaran itu sendiri bersifat membebaskan.[21] Aliran Theravāda menekankan Empat Kebenaran Mulia sebagai inti dari keseluruhan ajaran Buddha. Penekanan atas empat kebenaran ini kurang menonjol dalam aliran Mahayana, yang melihat tujuan lebih tinggi dari kebijaksanaan ke dalam kerangka sunyata (kekosongan), dan mengikuti jalan Bodhisatwa sebagai elemen sentral dalam ajaran dan praktik mereka.[22] Tradisi Mahayana menafsirkan ulang empat kebenaran untuk menjelaskan bagaimana makhluk yang terbebaskan masih dapat "beroperasi secara menyeluruh di dunia ini".[23] Dimulai dengan penjelajahan Buddhisme oleh penjajah Barat pada abad ke-19 dan perkembangan gerakan modernis Buddhisme, ajaran-ajaran ini sering disajikan di Barat sebagai ajaran utama Buddhisme,[24][25] kadang-kadang dengan interpretasi ulang modernis baru yang sangat berbeda dari pemahaman tradisional dalam tradisi Buddhisme di Asia.[26][27][28]
Theravāda
suntingPenderitaan
suntingKonsep tentang dukkha (penderitaan) dapat dilihat dari tiga aspek:[2]
- Dukkha sebagai penderitaan umum (dukkha-dukkha): semua bentuk penderitaan fisik dan mental dalam hidup seperti kelahiran; usia tua; sakit; kematian; berhubungan dengan kondisi dan orang yang tidak menyenangkan; berpisah dengan yang dicintai dan kondisi menyenangkan; tidak mendapatkan apa yang diinginkan; nestapa; ratapan; dan kesukaran.
- Dukkha yang disebabkan oleh perubahan (vipariṇāma-dukkha): penderitaan yang disebabkan oleh ketidakkekalan perasaan senang dan kondisi bahagia. Oleh karena perubahan, maka ada penderitaan.
- Dukkha karena keadaan berkondisi (saṅkhāra-dukkha): gugusan-gugusan—termasuk gugusan materi, kesadaran, persepsi, perasaan, dan bentukan kehendak—yang tanpa atma. Lima gugusan adalah dukkha itu sendiri.
Munculnya penderitaan
suntingAsal dari penderitaan (samudaya) diidentifikasi sebagai taṇhā (nafsu) yang menciptakan keberadaan dan punarbawa (ponobhavikā); yang menyatu dengan keserakahan (nandīrāgasahagatā); dan yang mencari kesenangan saat ini dan yang akan datang (tatratatrābhinandinī). Nafsu (taṇhā) ada tiga jenis:[2]
- Taṇhā atas kesenangan indrawi (kāma-taṇhā)
- Taṇhā atas eksistensi atau kemenjadian (bhava-taṇhā)
- Taṇhā atas noneksistensi atau penghancuran diri (vibhava-taṇhā)
Dr. Walpola Rahula Mahāthera menjelaskan bahwa taṇhā memang sebab dukkha, tetapi bukanlah sebab utamanya. Taṇhā adalah sebab terdekat, paling jelas, dan langsung. Kemunculan taṇhā bergantung pada sesuatu yang lain, yaitu perasaan (vedanā). Perasaan (vedanā) muncul bergantung pada kontak (phassa), dan seterusnya, sebagaimana dijelaskan dalam Kemunculan Bersebab. Beberapa teks kitab suci menjelaskan bahwa samudaya juga termasuk kotoran batin dan noda-noda lainnya (kilesā, sāsavā dhammā), selain taṇhā yang berada di urutan pertama.[2]
Terhentinya penderitaan
suntingKebenaran mulia ketiga tentang terhentinya penderitaan (dukkha-nirodha) diidentifikasi sebagai keadaan yang pada akhirnya menuju Nirwana,[16] termasuk empat tingkat kemuliaan. Untuk melenyapkan penderitaan, seseorang harus melenyapkan akar utama penderitaan, yaitu taṇhā (nafsu). Oleh karena itu, Nirwana juga dikenal dengan istilah taṇhākkhaya (lenyapnya nafsu).[2]
Jalan menuju lenyapnya penderitaan
suntingJalan menuju lenyapnya penderitaan (dukkha) adalah Jalan Mulia Berunsur Delapan yang sering dikelompokkan dalam tiga bagian:[2][29]
- Pandangan/Pengertian Benar (sammā-diṭṭhi)
- Niat Benar (sammā-saṅkappa)
- Ucapan/Perkataan Benar (sammā-vācā)
- Perbuatan Benar (sammā-kammanta)
- Penghidupan/Pencaharian Benar (sammā-ājīva)
- Konsentrasi (Pali: samādhi)
- Upaya/Usaha Benar (sammā-vāyāma)
- Perhatian Benar (sammā-sati)
- Keheningan/Konsentrasi Benar (sammā-samādhi)
Sejarah perkembangan
suntingMenurut Anderson, "empat kebenaran mungkin diakui sebagai ajaran yang paling penting dari Sang Buddha".[30] Namun, sejak tahun 1935, Caroline Rhys Davids mengemukakan bahwa ajaran yang menjadi pusat bagi Buddhisme aliran Theravāda tersebut tidak ada dalam bagian-bagian "paling penting" dalam Tripitaka Pali (meskipun tetap terekam di dalamnya).[31] Menurut Gethin, Empat Kebenaran Mulia dan Jalan Mulia Berunsur Delapan hanyalah dua daftar dari "ratusan daftar serupa yang secara harfiah mencakup seluruh rentang teori dan praktik Buddhisme kuno".[32] Posisi Empat Kebenaran Mulia dalam Tripitaka menimbulkan pertanyaan dan telah diselidiki sepanjang abad ke-19 dan ke-20.[33]
Analisis ilmiah terhadap kitab tertua
suntingMenurut para sarjana akademis, inkonsistensi dalam kitab-kitab awal dapat mengungkap perkembangan dalam ajaran-ajaran terdahulu.[34][note 3] Sementara itu, aliran Theravāda berpendapat bahwa kitab Sutta Piṭaka dalam Tripitaka Pali (salah satu versi Tripitaka) adalah "penyampaian definitif dari kata-kata Sang Buddha"[35] dan Theravādin (penganut Theravāda) berpendapat bahwa diskursus-diskursus di dalamnya berasal langsung dari Sang Buddha sendiri melalui transmisi lisan yang tidak terputus,[36][37][web 4][note 4] para sarjana akademis telah mengidentifikasi banyak inkonsistensi dan mencoba untuk menjelaskannya. Informasi tentang ajaran-ajaran awal dalam Buddhisme, seperti Empat Kebenaran Mulia, diperoleh melalui analisis terhadap kitab-kitab awal, dan inkonsistensi yang ditemukan masih menjadi subjek pembahasan dan penelitian.[38][39][40][41] Menurut Schmithausen, dapat dibedakan tiga posisi yang dipegang oleh para sarjana Buddhisme mengenai kemungkinan mempertahankan pengetahuan tentang Buddhisme awal:[38]
- "Penekanan pada homogenitas fundamental dan keaslian substansial dari setidaknya sebagian besar materi bahasan yang berkaitan dengan perbedaan Nikāya (subaliran atau ordo-ordo Buddhisme)",[note 5]
- "Sikap skeptis terhadap kemungkinan menemukan kembali ajaran Buddhisme yang paling awal",[note 6]
- "Optimisme yang hati-hati dalam hal tersebut".[note 7]
Perkembangan
suntingMenjadi semakin signifikan
suntingPeneliti Buddhisme, Eviatar Shulman, mengusulkan bahwa dalam bentuk aslinya, Empat Kebenaran Mulia berakar dalam bahasan tentang persepsi meditatif terkait peristiwa mental, berdasarkan analisisnya terhadap kata "ayaṁ" dalam bahasa Pali. Menurutnya, kata tersebut menjelaskan persepsi langsung sebagaimana seseorang mengalami sendiri suatu peristiwa yang berlangsung tepat di depan matanya.[48]
Menurut Bronkhorst, Empat Kebenaran Mulia mungkin telah dirumuskan dalam Buddhisme awal tetapi tidak menjadi ajaran inti seperti dalam ajaran aliran-aliran Buddhisme setelahnya. Menurut Anderson, baru pada masa munculnya kitab-kitab komentar pada abad ke-5 Masehi, Empat Kebenaran Mulia mulai diidentifikasi dalam aliran Theravada sebagai inti ajaran Sang Buddha.[49][note 8] Menurut Anderson:
... Empat Kebenaran Mulia mungkin bukan bagian dari lapisan paling awal dari apa yang kemudian dikenal sebagai ajaran Buddha, tetapi muncul sebagai ajaran inti pada periode yang agak belakangan yang masih mendahului penyuntingan akhir dari berbagai kanon Buddhis ...[50]
Menurut Feer dan Anderson, Empat Kebenaran Mulia kemungkinan masuk ke dalam kitab Sutta Piṭaka dalam Tripitaka Pali (versi Tripitaka yang diakui aliran Theravāda) dari kitab-kitab Vinaya, yaitu kitab yang berisi aturan untuk tatanan kehidupan monastik.[51][note 9] Awalnya, ajaran tersebut ditambahkan ke dalam cerita-cerita kecerahan yang mengandung Empat Jhāna sebagai pengganti istilah "kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan".[54][note 10] Setelah itu, formula tersebut ditambahkan ke dalam kisah-kisah biografi Sang Buddha.[58][note 11]
Menggantikan "kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan"
suntingPara sarjana telah mencatat adanya ketidakkonsistenan dalam penyajian kecerahan Sang Buddha, dan jalan menuju pembebasan Sang Buddha, dalam kitab-kitab tertua. Mereka berpendapat bahwa ketidakkonsistenan ini menunjukkan bahwa ajaran-ajaran Sang Buddha berkembang, baik selama masa hidup Sang Buddha, maupun setelahnya.[note 3] Menurut sarjana Jepang Ui, empat kebenaran tersebut bukanlah representasi paling awal dari kecerahan Sang Buddha. Sebaliknya, keempat kebenaran tersebut merupakan teori yang muncul belakangan tentang hakikat isi kecerahan Sang Buddha.[60] Menurut Vetter dan Bronkhorst, jalan Buddhis yang paling awal terdiri dari serangkaian praktik yang berpuncak pada praktik dhyana,[61][62] mengarah pada ketenangan pikiran dan perhatian penuh (mindfulness)[63] yang menurut Vetter berperan sebagai pembebasan yang ingin dicapai.[61][note 12] Kemudian, “kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan” dianggap juga sebagai sesuatu yang membebaskan.[65][62] “Kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan” ini kemudian dicontohkan oleh prajna, atau kebijaksanaan dalam “empat kebenaran”,[62] tetapi juga oleh unsur-unsur lain dari ajaran Buddha.[61][66] Menurut Vetter dan Bronkhorst, meningkatnya signifikansi “kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan” ini merupakan respons terhadap kelompok agama lain di India, yang berpendapat bahwa kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan sangat diperlukan untuk moksa, pembebasan dari kelahiran kembali.[67][68][note 13] Perubahan ini tercermin dalam kanon, di mana, menurut Bronkhorst,
...kisah-kisah yang mencakup Empat Kebenaran Mulia memiliki konsep yang sepenuhnya berbeda tentang proses pembebasan daripada kisah yang mencakup Empat Dhyana dan penghancuran zat-zat memabukkan.[70]
Menurut Vetter dan Bonkhorst, ide-ide tentang apa sebenarnya yang merupakan “kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan” ini tidak tetap namun berkembang seiring waktu.[61][66] Menurut Bronkhorst, dalam ajaran Buddha paling awal, empat kebenaran tidak berfungsi sebagai deskripsi "kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan".[71] Awalnya istilah prajna digunakan untuk menunjukkan "kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan" ini. Kemudian, prajna digantikan dalam sutta dengan "empat kebenaran".[72][73]
Menurut Schmithausen, empat kebenaran ini digantikan oleh Pratityasamutpada, dan kemudian, dalam aliran Hinayana, digantikan oleh doktrin tentang tidak adanya diri atau pribadi yang substansial (tanpa atma).[74] Schmithausen lebih lanjut menyatakan bahwa masih ada deskripsi lain tentang "kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan" ini dalam kanon Buddhis:
"bahwa kelima Skandha itu tidak kekal, tidak menyenangkan, dan bukan merupakan Diri maupun milik diri sendiri";[note 14] "perenungan tentang timbul dan lenyapnya (udayabbaya) dari lima Skandha";[note 15] "realisasi Skandha sebagai kosong (rittaka), sia-sia (tucchaka), dan tanpa inti atau substansi apa pun (asaraka).[note 16][75]
Sebaliknya, Bhikkhu Thanissaro mengemukakan pandangan bahwa Empat Kebenaran Mulia, Kemunculan Bersebab, dan tanpa-atma, merupakan konsep-konsep yang saling terkait erat.[web 5]
Catatan
sunting- ^ Dukkha dalam bahasa Inggris biasanya diterjemahkan sebagai "suffering" ("penderitaan"). Namun terjemahan ini hanya mencakup makna umum. Terjemahan yang tepat bergantung pada konteksnya.
- Peter Harvey, Dukkha, Non-Self, and the Teaching of the Four Noble Truths, in Steven M. Emmanuel, A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, hlm.30: ""suffering" is an appropriate translation only in a general, inexact sense [...] In the passage on the first True Reality, dukkha in "birth is dukkha" is an adjective [...] The best translation here is by the English adjective "painful," which can apply to a range of things."
- (Analayo 2013b): "Dukkha is often translated as "suffering". Suffering, however, represents only one aspect of dukkha, a term whose range of implications is difficult to capture with a single English word. Dukkha can be derived from the Sanskrit kha, one meaning of which is "the axle-hole of a wheel", and the antithetic prefix duå (= dus), which stands for "difficulty" or "badness". The complete term then evokes the image of an axle not fitting properly into its hole. According to this image, dukkha suggests "disharmony" or "friction". Alternatively dukkha can be related to the Sanskrit stha, "standing" or "abiding", combined with the same antithetic prefix duå. Dukkha in the sense of "standing badly" then conveys nuances of "uneasiness" or of being "uncomfortable". In order to catch the various nuances of "dukkha", the most convenient translation is "unsatisfactoriness", though it might be best to leave the term untranslated."
- Dalai Lama, Thubten Chodron, Approaching the Buddhist Path, hlm.279 note 2: "Duhkha (P. dukkha) is often translated as "suffering," but this translation is misleading. Its meaning is more nuanced and refers to all unsatisfactory states and experiences, many of which are not explicitly painfull. While the Buddha says that life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma is unsatisfactory, he does not say that life is suffering."
- Gombrich, What the Buddha Thought, hlm.10: "there has been a lot of argument over how to translate the word dukkha; and again, the choice of translation must depend heavily on the context. But what is being expressed is that life as we normally experience it is unsatisfactory."
- Menurut (Khantipalo 2003, hlm. 46), "suffering" bukan terjemahan yang tepat karena dukkha merujuk pada sifat yang pada dasarnya tidak memuaskan dari berbagai hal dan keadaan yang bersifat sementara, termasuk pengalaman yang menyenangkan namun sementara.
- According to (Emmanuel 2015, hlm. 30), Dukkha adalah kebalikan dari sukha, "pleasure", dan lebih baik diterjemahkan sebagai "pain".
- (Huxter 2016, hlm. 10): "dukkha (unsatisfactoriness or suffering)...";
- (Anderson 2013, hlm. 1, 22 with note 4): "(...) tiga karakteristik dari samsara/sankhara (alam kelahiran kembali): anicca (impermance), dukkha (pain) dan anatta (no-self)."
- ^ When taking dukkha literal as suffering, taṇhā is often interpreted in western languages as the "cause" of "suffering," but tanha can also be interpreted as the factor tying us to physical and emotional suffering, or as a response to physical and emotional suffering, trying to escape it;[10]
- ^ a b Lihat:
- La Vallee Possin (1937), Musila et Narada; reprinted in Gombrich (2006), How Buddhism Began, appendix
- Erich Frauwallner (1953), Geschichte der indischen Philosophie, Band Der Buddha und der Jina (hlm. 147–272)
- Andre Bareau (1963), Recherches sur la biographiedu Buddha dans les Sutrapitaka et les Vinayapitaka anciens, Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient
- Schmithausen, On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism. In: Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf), hrsg. von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler, Wiesbaden 1981, 199–250.
- Griffiths, Paul (1981), "Concentration or Insight; The Problematic of Theravada Buddhist Meditation-theory", The Journal of the American Academy of Religion (4): 605–624, doi:10.1093/jaarel/XLIX.4.605
- K.R. Norman, Four Noble Truths
- Bronkhorst 1993, chapter 8
- Tilman Vetter (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, by Tilmann Vetter
- Richard F. Gombrich (2006) [1996]. How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19639-5., chapter four
- Anderson 1999
- Wynne 2007
- ^ Bhikkhu Sujato & Bhikkhu Brahmali, hlm. 4: "Most academic scholars of Early Buddhism cautiously affirm that it is possible that the EBTS contain some authentic sayings of the Buddha. We contend that this drastically understates the evidence. A sympathetic assessment of relevant evidence shows that it is very likely that the bulk of the sayings in the EBTS that are attributed to the Buddha were actually spoken by him. It is very unlikely that most of these sayings are inauthentic.[web 4]
- ^ Pendukung dari pendapat pertama ini adalah:
* A.K. Warder. Menurut A.K. Warder, dalam publikasi tahu 1970 "Indian Buddhism", dari teks-teks tertua yang masih ada, inti umum dapat ditarik [42] yaitu Bodhipakkhiyādhammā. Menurut Warder, c.q. penerbitnya: "This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before the great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."[42]
* Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By "the main edifice" I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules."[43] - ^ Pendukung pendapat kedua ini adalah Ronald Davidson: "While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early community (disputed)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."[44]
- ^ Pendukung dari pendapat ketiga ini adalah:
* J.W. de Jong: "It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."[45]
* Johannes Bronkhorst: "This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek may find, even if no success is guaranteed."[46]
* Donald Lopez: "The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct."[47] - ^ Anderson: "However, the four noble truths do not always appear in stories of the Buddha's enlightenment where we might expect to find them. This feature may indicate that the four noble truths emerged into the canonical tradition at a particular point and slowly became recognized as the first teaching of the Buddha. Speculations about early and late teachings must be made relative to other passages in the Pali canon because of a lack of supporting extratextual evidence. Nonetheless, it is still possible to suggest a certain historical development of the four noble truths within the Pali canon. What we will find is a doctrine that came to be identified as the central teaching of the Buddha by the time of the commentaries in the fifth century C.E."[49]
- ^ Anderson merujuk kepada Léon Feer, yang pada tahun 1870 sudah "suggested the possibility that the four noble truths emerged into Buddhist literature through vinaya collections."[52] Dia juga merujuk pada Bareau, yang menyadari adanya konsistensi antara kedua versi tersebut Mahavagga, bagian dari kitab Vinaya, dan Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta yang disampaikan saat kecerahan Buddha: "As Bareau noted, the consistency between these two versions of the Buddha's enlightenment is an indication that the redactors of the Theravada canon probably brought the two accounts into agreement with each other at a relatively late point in the formation of the canon.
Leon Feer had already suggested in 1870 that the versions of the four noble truths found in the sutras and suttas were derived from the vinaya rescensions in the larger body of Buddhist literature; Bareau's conclusion builds on this claim."[53] - ^ Menurut Schmithausen, dalam artikelnya yang sering dikutip On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism, penyebutan empat kebenaran mulia sebagai “kebijaksanaan yang membebaskan” yang dicapai setelah menguasai Rupa Jhana, adalah tambahan belakangan pada teks-teks, seperti pada Majjhima Nikaya 36.[55][56][57]
- ^ Anderson merujuk pada penelitian oleh K.R. Norman, Bareau, Skilling, Schmithausen and Bronkhorst.[59]
- ^ Perlu dicatat bahwa dhyana tidak sama dengan samatha, yaitu menenangkan pikiran dengan konsentrasi penuh. Sementara dhyana juga menghasilkan ketenangan pikiran, ia membantu mengembangkan kesadaran penuh, yang diperlukan untuk menyadari munculnya pikiran dan emosi yang mengganggu dan egois, serta untuk melawannya. Wynne: "...the Buddha taught a 'middle way' between pure meditation and cognitive practices. The states of absorption induced by meditation were considered useful and necessary, but, in distinction from the meditative mainstream, their ultimate aim was insight. For the Buddha, it was vitally important that the meditative adept should apply his concentrative state to the practice of mindfulness (Sn 1070: satima; Sn 1111: ajjhattañ ca bahiddha ca nabhinandato; Sn 1113: ajjhattañ ca bahiddha ca natthi ti passato), and work towards the attainment of insight. According to this view, meditation alone, the goal of the meditative mainstream, would have been harshly criticized in the earliest Buddhism."[64]
- ^ Tillmann Vetter: "Very likely the cause was the growing influence of a non-Buddhist spiritual environment·which claimed that one can be released only by some truth or higher knowledge. In addition the alternative (and perhaps sometimes competing) method of discriminating insight (fully established after the introduction of the four noble truths) seemed to conform so well to this claim."[69]
Menurut Bronkhorst, hal ini terjadi di bawah pengaruh "kearusutamaan meditasi (mainstream of meditation)", yaitu, kelompok berorientasi Weda-Brahmanis, yang percaya bahwa penghentian perbuatan tidak dapat membebaskan karena perbuatan tidak akan pernah dapat dihentikan sepenuhnya. Solusi mereka adalah dengan mendalilkan perbedaan mendasar antara jiwa atau diri batiniah dan tubuh. Diri batiniah tidak dapat diubah, dan tidak terpengaruh oleh perbuatan. Dengan kebijaksanaan atas perbedaan ini, seseorang terbebaskan. Untuk menyamakan penekanan pada kebijaksanaan ini, umat Buddha menyajikan kebijaksanaan tentang ajaran mereka yang paling penting sebagai sesuatu yang sama-sama membebaskan. Apa sebenarnya yang dianggap sebagai kebijaksanaan sentral "bervariasi sesuai dengan apa yang dianggap paling penting dalam ajaran Sang Buddha" ("varied along with what was considered most central to the teaching of the Buddha.")[68] - ^ Majjhima Nikaya 26
- ^ Anguttara Nikaya II.45 (PTS)
- ^ Samyutta Nikaya III.140–142 (PTS)
Referensi
sunting- ^ Keown 2013, hlm. 48–62.
- ^ a b c d e f Rahula, Dr. Walpola Sri (2019-07-01). Inilah Dhamma: Apa yang Buddha Ajarkan. Yayasan Dhammavihari.
- ^ Analayo (2013b).
- ^ Beckwith (2015), hlm. 30.
- ^ Alexander (2019), hlm. 36.
- ^ Anderson 2004, hlm. 295–297. Kutipan: "This, bhikkhus, is the noble truth that is suffering. Birth is suffering; old age is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow and grief, physical and mental suffering, and disturbance are suffering. [...] In short, all life is suffering, according to the Buddha's first sermon."
- ^ Keown 2013, hlm. 50–52.
- ^ Anderson 2004, hlm. 295–297. Kutipan: "The second truth is samudaya (arising or origin). To end suffering, the four noble truths tell us, one needs to know how and why suffering arises. The second noble truth explains that suffering arises because of craving, desire, and attachment."
- ^ Keown 2013, hlm. 53–55.
- ^ Brazier 2001.
- ^ a b Batchelor 2012, hlm. 95–97.
- ^ Buswell & Lopez 2014, hlm. "nirodha".
- ^ Anderson 2001, hlm. 96.
- ^ Anderson 2004, hlm. 295–297, Kutipan: "The third truth follows from the second: If the cause of suffering is desire and attachment to various things, then the way to end suffering is to eliminate craving, desire, and attachment. The third truth is called nirodha, which means 'ending' or 'cessation'. To stop suffering, one must stop desiring";
- ^ Keown 2013, hlm. 56–58.
- ^ a b Vihara Buddharatana Medan (2023-11-14), PENGURAIAN PATICCASAMUPPADA SECARA SIMPEL | Bhante Maha Dhammadhiro Mahathera, diakses tanggal 2024-08-21
- ^ Anderson 2004, hlm. 295–297, Kutipan: "This, bhikkhus, is the noble truth that is the way leading to the ending of suffering. This is the eightfold path of the noble ones: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.[..] The Buddha taught the fourth truth, maarga (Pali, magga), the path that has eight parts, as the means to end suffering."
- ^ Keown 2013, hlm. 58–60.
- ^ Norman 2003, hlm. 219, 222.
- ^ Anderson 1999, hlm. 230–231.
- ^ Carter 1987, hlm. 3179.
- ^ Carter 1987, hlm. 3179–3180.
- ^ Makransky 1997, hlm. 346–347.
- ^ Harris 2006, hlm. 72–73.
- ^ Anderson 2001, hlm. 196.
- ^ Keown 2009, hlm. 60–63, 74–85, 185–187.
- ^ Konik 2009, hlm. ix.
- ^ Lopez 2012, hlm. 39–43, 57–60, 74–76, 122–124.
- ^ Sutrisno, SJ, FX. Mudji (1993). Buddhisme : Pengaruhnya dalam abad modern. Kanisus. ISBN 979-413-985-8.
- ^ Anderson, Carol S. (1999). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Routledge. hlm. 55.
- ^ Anderson, Carol S. (1999). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Routledge. hlm. ix.
- ^ Gethin, R. M. (2003). The Buddhist Path to Awakening. OneWorld Publications. hlm. 20.
- ^ Anderson, Carol S. (2001). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Motilall Banarsidas. hlm. 168–211.
- ^ Vetter, Tilmann (1988). The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. BRILL. hlm. ix.
- ^ Bhikku Bodhi (1995). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha. A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Wisdom Publications. hlm. 13.
- ^ Payutto, P. A. (2002). "What a True Buddidst Should Know about the Pali Canon". MANUSYA. 5 (4): 93–132. doi:10.1163/26659077-00504007. ISSN 0859-9920.
- ^ Sujato, Bhante (2015). The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts (PDF). ISBN 9781312911505.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993). The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- ^ Vetter, Tilmann (1988). The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. BRILL.
- ^ Schmithausen, Lambert (1981). On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism". In: Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf), hrsg. von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler. Wiesbaden.
- ^ Gombrich, Richard F. (1997). How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19639-5.
- ^ a b Warder 1999, inside flap.
- ^ Gombrich 1997.
- ^ Davidson 2003, hlm. 147.
- ^ Jong 1993, hlm. 25.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. vii.
- ^ Lopez 1995, hlm. 4.
- ^ Shulman, Eviatar (2017). Rethinking the Buddha. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 140.
- ^ a b Anderson 1999, hlm. 55–56.
- ^ Anderson 1999, hlm. 21.
- ^ Anderson, Carol S. (1999). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Routledge. hlm. 74, 77.
- ^ Anderson 2001, hlm. 183.
- ^ Anderson 1999, hlm. 74.
- ^ Anderson, Carol S. (1999). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Routledge. hlm. 148.
- ^ Schmithausen 1981.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. [halaman dibutuhkan].
- ^ Vetter 1988.
- ^ Anderson, Carol S. (1999). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Routledge. hlm. 17.
- ^ Anderson 1999, hlm. 19–20.
- ^ Hirakawa 1990, hlm. 28.
- ^ a b c d Vetter 1988, hlm. xxi–xxxvii.
- ^ a b c Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 93–111.
- ^ Vetter 1988, hlm. xxv.
- ^ Wynne 2007, hlm. 105.
- ^ Gombrich 1997, hlm. 99–102.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst 1993, chapter 7.
- ^ Vetter 1988, hlm. xxxii, xxxiii.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 54–55, 96, 99.
- ^ Vetter 1988, hlm. xxxiii.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 110.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 107.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 99–100, 102–111.
- ^ Anderson 1999, hlm. [halaman dibutuhkan].
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 100–101.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, hlm. 101.
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Sumber web
sunting- ^ [a] Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kutipan: "Although the term Four Noble Truths is well known in English, it is a misleading translation of the Pali term Chattari-ariya-saccani (Sanskrit: Chatvari-arya-satyani), because noble (Pali: ariya; Sanskrit: arya) refers not to the truths themselves but to those who recognize and understand them. A more accurate rendering, therefore, might be "four truths for the [spiritually] noble" [...]"; [b] Arhat (Buddhism), Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kutipan: "The first truth, suffering (Pali: dukkha; Sanskrit: duhkha), is characteristic of existence in the realm of rebirth, called samsara (terj. har. 'wandering')."
- ^ Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kutipan: "The second truth is the origin (Pali and Sanskrit: samudaya) or cause of suffering, which the Buddha associated with craving or attachment in his first sermon."
- ^ a b Sujato, Bhante; Brahmali, Bhikkhu (2015), The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts (PDF), Chroniker Press, ISBN 978-1312911505, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2015-12-24
- ^ "Wings to Awakening Part 3". accestoinsight.org.
Bacaan lanjutan
suntingLatar belakang sejarah dan perkembangan
sunting- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, chapter 8
- Anderson, Carol (1999), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
Komentar-komentar Theravada
sunting- Walpola Rahula (1974), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press
- Ajahn Sucitto (2010), Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha's First Teaching, Shambhala.
- Ajahn Sumedho (2002), The Four Noble Truths, Amaravati Publications.
- Bhikkhu Bodhi (2006), The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering, Pariyatti Publishing.
Tibetan Buddhism
sunting- Chögyam Trungpa (2009), The Truth of Suffering and the Path of Liberation, Shambhala.
- Dalai Lama (1998), The Four Noble Truths, Thorsons.
- Geshe Tashi Tsering (2005), The Four Noble Truths: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume I, Wisdom, Kindle Edition
- Ringu Tulku (2005), Daring Steps Toward Fearlessness: The Three Vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism, Snow Lion. (Part 1 of 3 is a commentary on the four truths)
Interpretasi Modern
sunting- Brazier, David (2001), The Feeling Buddha, Robinson Publishing
- Epstein, Mark (2004), Thoughts Without A Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. Basic Books. Kindle Edition. (Part 1 examines the four truths from a Western psychological perspective)
- Moffitt, Phillip (2008), Dancing with Life: Buddhist Insights for Finding Meaning and Joy in the Face of Suffering, Rodale, Kindle Edition. (An explanation of how to apply the Four Noble Truths to daily life)
- Thich Nhat Hanh (1999), The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Three Rivers Press
Penjelasan akademis lainnya
sunting- Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press (Chapter 3 is a commentary of about 25 pages).
- Lopez, Donald S. (2001), The Story of Buddhism, HarperCollins (hlm. 42–54).
Pranala luar
sunting- " What are the Four Noble Truths?"
- " The Four Noble Truths: an overview", Berzin Archives
- The Four Noble Truths. A Study Guide, Thanissaro Bikkhu
- Four Noble Truths, Rigpa Wiki